This document provides information on wave quantum mechanics and electron configurations. It discusses:
- Erwin Schrodinger's contributions to developing quantum mechanics and proposing the wave-like nature of electrons.
- How electrons occupy distinct energy levels and orbitals around the nucleus, with specific shapes defined by Schrodinger's wave equation.
- Rules for building up electron configurations, including Hund's rule and the Aufbau principle for filling orbitals in order of increasing energy.
- Exceptions to the Aufbau principle seen in some transition metals where half or fully filled subshells are more stable.
- How electron configurations are written using shorthand notation based on noble gas cores.
This presentation shows the basics of a volume hologram and its applications.The main focus of this presentation is optical computing using volume hologram. The optical computing schemes used in this presentation are Vundelught filter, joint Fourier transform correlator, and optical neural network.
This presentation shows the basics of a volume hologram and its applications.The main focus of this presentation is optical computing using volume hologram. The optical computing schemes used in this presentation are Vundelught filter, joint Fourier transform correlator, and optical neural network.
Electron configuration process and steps. It has the explanation of how quantum numbers are arranged in the periodic table, and how they are used to find the electron configuration of elements. A brief explanation of Aufbau rule, Hund's rule and Pauli's Exclusion principle
Improved optomechanical interactions for quantum technologiesOndrej Cernotik
Cavity optomechanics reached remarkable success in coupling optical and mechanical degrees of freedom. The standard mechanism relies on dispersive interaction wherein a cavity mode acquires a frequency shift proportional to the mechanical displacement. Efficient coupling is, however, often impeded by large cavity decay rates or strong heating of the mechanical element by optical absorption. In this talk, I will present two strategies to circumvent this problem. In the first one, a membrane doped with an ensemble of two-level emitters or patterned with a photonic-crystal structure is used as a mechanical element. The hybridization of the cavity mode with the membrane’s internal resonance leads to a modified response, resulting in an effective narrow cavity linewidth. I will show how such systems can be described quantum mechanically and discuss how optomechanical sideband cooling can be improved by the presence of the internal resonance. Second, I will discuss optomechanics with levitated particles and show how coherent scattering can be used to generate strong mechanical squeezing. In this system, the standard dispersive interaction is replaced by scattering of the trapping beam into an empty cavity mode. This process can result in strong, controllable coupling between the cavity mode and the motion of the particle with minimal absorption heating. I will also briefly outline how this type of interaction can be used to engineer coupling between different center-of-mass modes of the particle allowing, in principle, full optomechanical control of the particle motion.
Electron configuration process and steps. It has the explanation of how quantum numbers are arranged in the periodic table, and how they are used to find the electron configuration of elements. A brief explanation of Aufbau rule, Hund's rule and Pauli's Exclusion principle
Improved optomechanical interactions for quantum technologiesOndrej Cernotik
Cavity optomechanics reached remarkable success in coupling optical and mechanical degrees of freedom. The standard mechanism relies on dispersive interaction wherein a cavity mode acquires a frequency shift proportional to the mechanical displacement. Efficient coupling is, however, often impeded by large cavity decay rates or strong heating of the mechanical element by optical absorption. In this talk, I will present two strategies to circumvent this problem. In the first one, a membrane doped with an ensemble of two-level emitters or patterned with a photonic-crystal structure is used as a mechanical element. The hybridization of the cavity mode with the membrane’s internal resonance leads to a modified response, resulting in an effective narrow cavity linewidth. I will show how such systems can be described quantum mechanically and discuss how optomechanical sideband cooling can be improved by the presence of the internal resonance. Second, I will discuss optomechanics with levitated particles and show how coherent scattering can be used to generate strong mechanical squeezing. In this system, the standard dispersive interaction is replaced by scattering of the trapping beam into an empty cavity mode. This process can result in strong, controllable coupling between the cavity mode and the motion of the particle with minimal absorption heating. I will also briefly outline how this type of interaction can be used to engineer coupling between different center-of-mass modes of the particle allowing, in principle, full optomechanical control of the particle motion.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF NI0.4MG0.6FE2O4 SYNTHESIZED BY CONVENTIONAL SOLID-ST...IAEME Publication
Ni0.4Mg0.6Fe2O4 samples are prepared by conventional double sintering approach and sintered at 1300oC/ 2 h. These ferrites are characterized using X-ray diffractometer. The diffraction study reveals that the present compound shows perfect single phase cubic spinel structure. In addition, the behavior of distinct electrical properties such as dielectric constant (ε'), dielectric loss (ε") and ac-conductivity (σac) as a function frequency as well as temperature is analyzed using the LCR controller
Describe the Schroedinger wavefunctions and energies of electrons in an atom leading to the 3 quantum numbers. These can be also observed in the line spectra of atoms.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
2. Electrons occupy specific energy levels/shells in an atom.
The number of electrons in each level is governed by the
formula 2n2
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
3. Erwin Schrödinger
• 1887 – 1961
• physicist & theoretical
biologist
• helped develop
quantum mechanics
• Nobel Prize 1933
– Schrödinger’s
Equation
– quantum state of a
physical system
changes over time
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
5. Schrödinger also
proposed that an
electron behaves in
a wave-like manner
rather than just as
particles.
Thus electrons are
both particles and
waves at the same
time.
Since electrons are
waves, they do not
remain localized in a
2-D orbit.
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
6. WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
quantum mechanics – mathematical description of
wave-particle duality of energy / matter
Schrodinger’s Wave Equation:
Electrons do not travel in defined paths around the
nucleus. Rather they occupy a space defined by
the “wave equation”.
7. Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty Principle
For extremely small
particles, one cannot
predict both its speed
and location at the
same time.
orbitals – a defined
space around a
nucleus where an e-
is
probably found
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
8. Orbits Vs. Orbitals
2-D path 3-D path
Fixed distance from
nucleus
Variable distance from
nucleus
Circular or elliptical
path
No path; varied shape of
region
2n2
electrons per orbit 2 electrons per orbital
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
9. Each orbital (containing 2 electrons) is further
classified under different categorizations based on
their shape
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
s - orbital p - orbitals d - orbitals
11. g – orbitals
Orbital shapes are energy
dependent and can be
solved through
Schrödinger’s wave
equation.
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
12. Value of l Sublevel Symbol Number of
Orbitals
0 s (sharp) 1
1 p (principle) 3
2 d (diffuse) 5
3 f (fundamental) 7
Summary of s, p, d, f orbitals:
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
13. WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
Each energy level (Bohr Model) contains a set number
of orbitals.
Each orbital is named by:
1. the energy level it is located in (Arabic number)
2. the orbital shape (alphabet letter)
14. Orbitals and Orbital Shapes
s Fits 2 electrons
p Fits 6 electrons
d Fits 10 electrons
f Fits 14 electrons
px py pz
dv dw dx dy dz
dt du dv dw dx dy dz
Increasingenergy
orbital
subshell
Each arrow
represents an
electron
Pauli exclusion principle: No two electrons in an orbital have the same
direction (all electrons have angular momentum causing it to have a
magnetic direction)
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
15. RECALL: Schrödinger proposed that each energy
level/shell had a respective number of subshells.
What do you think these subshells are?
s
s, p
s, p, d
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
16. Electron distribution:
Energy Level Sublevel Maximum #
of Electrons
in Energy
Level (2n2
)
Number of
Each Orbital
Maximum #
of Electrons
in Orbital
Type
1 s 2 1 2
2 s
p
8 1
3
2
6
3 s
p
d
18 1
3
5
2
6
10
4 s
p
d
f
32 1
3
5
7
2
6
10
14
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
17. WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
Summary of “building” atoms:
1. Each higher energy level can “hold” one more type
of orbital. (s, p, d, f, g)
2. For any orbital at an energy level, the number of
each orbital type increases by two.
• 1 s-orbital
• 3 p-orbitals
• 5 d-orbitals
3. Electrons fill each orbital, in order, from the
lowest energy orbital.
18. Drawing an electron energy-level diagram
Example: Oxygen
How many electrons does oxygen have? 8
O
aufbau principle: An energy sublevel must be filled
before moving to the next higher sublevel
2p
2s
1s
Hund’s rule: No two electrons can
be put into the same orbital until one
electron has been put into each of the
equal-energy orbitals
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
19. Drawing an electron energy-level diagram
Hund’s rule analogy:
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
20. Drawing an electron energy-level diagram
Example: Oxygen
How many electrons does oxygen have? 8
O
aufbau principle: An energy sublevel must be filled
before moving to the next higher sublevel
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
21. Drawing an electron energy-level diagram
Example: Oxygen
O
2p
2s
1s
Compare with its Bohr-
Rutherford diagram:
P = 8
N = 8
Notice how the pairing of electrons in the Bohr-Rutherford
diagram matches the energy level diagram
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
22. Drawing an electron energy-level diagram
Example: Iron How many electrons does iron have? 26
Although the 3rd
energy level
has 3 subshells, the “electron
filling” order is not as such
Fe
3d
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
23. Each energy level is
supposed to begin
with one s orbital,
and then three p
orbitals, and so forth.
There is often a bit of
overlap.
In this case, the 4s
orbital comes before
the 3d orbitals.
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
24. aufbau diagram:
Start at the top and
add electrons in the
order shown by the
diagonal arrows.
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
25. Drawing an electron energy-level diagram
Example: Iron How many electrons does iron have? 26
Fe
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
26. So why does bromine still have 7 valence electrons
despite how the 3rd
energy level can hold 18 electrons?
The last energy
level still has 7
electrons
Br
4p
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
27. Drawing an electron energy-level diagram
Example: sulfur vs sulfide ion
Observe how there
are two unpaired
electrons in sulfur
This explains why
sulfur gains 2
electrons in ionic
form
This is despite
the fact that
sulfur has 5
unfilled d
orbitals
S
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
S2-
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
28. General rule for anions:
Add the extra electrons corresponding to the ion charge
to the total number of electrons
Example: N3-
N3-
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
29. General rule for cations:
Remove the number of electrons corresponding to the
charge from the orbitals within the highest energy level
number
Example: Na+
Na+
3s
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
30. Why is an electron energy-level diagram drawn as such?
The greater
the orbital
number, the
greater the
energy of
the
electrons
The nucleus
is located at
the bottom
of the
diagram
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
31. Exception to Aufbau Principle:
Example: zinc vs zinc ion
Zn
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
Zn2+
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
The electrons
removed might
not be from the
highest-energy
orbitals. This is
based on
experimental
evidence.
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
32. Exceptions to Aufbau Principle:
Example: chromium
Following the Aufbau Principle: What actually happens:
Cr
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
Cr
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
33. Exceptions to Aufbau Principle:
Example: copper
Following the Aufbau Principle: What actually happens:
Cu
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
Cu
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
34. Why do these exceptions exist?
3d
4s
3d
4s
Vs.
Not as stable More stable
The 4s orbital is destabilized, but
now the entire 3d subshell is stable
3d
4s
3d
4s
Not as stable More stable
Filled subshell:
Half-filled subshell:
Experimental evidence indicates unfilled subshells are less stable
than half-filled & filled subshells (have higher energy)
Filled and half-filled subshells have a lower energy state &
are more stable
Vs.
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
35. Working with exceptions:
Only use d orbitals where there is a possibility of moving
an electron from an s to d orbital to achieve a half-filled
or filled set of orbitals
Example: Au
WAVE QUANTUM MECHANIC THEORY
36. Writing Electron Configurations
Electron configurations condense the information from
electron energy-level diagrams
Electron energy level diagram Electron configuration
O: 1s2
2s2
2p4
2s2
Energy level #
orbital
# of electrons
in orbitals
O
2p
2s
1s
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
38. Writing Electron Configurations
Shorthand form of Electron configurations:
Cl: 1s2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p5
Sn: 1s2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p6
4s2
3d10
4p6
5s2
4d10
5p2
Cl: [Ne] 3s2
3p5
Sn: [Kr] 5s2
4d10
5p2
Same configuration as Neon
Same configuration as krypton
In the shorthand version, the “core electrons” of an
atom are represented by the preceding noble gas
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
39. Writing Electron Configurations
Identify the element that has the following electron
configuration:
1s2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p6
4s2
3d10
4p6
5s2
4d10
5p6
6s2
4f14
5d10
6p4
It is the 4th
element
from the
left
It is polonium (Po)
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
41. Explaining multivalent metals:
Electrons are lost to achieve stability:
Cd: [Kr]5s2
4d10
becomes Cd2+
We can now explain why some transition metals can form
multiple ions:
Pb: [Xe]6s2
4f14
5d10
6p2
becomes Pb2+
or Pb4+
Fe: [Ar]4s2
3d6
becomes Fe2+
or Fe3+
3d
4s
3d
4s
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
42. Electrons cannot exist between orbitals?
O
2p
2s
1s
Electrons
cannot exist
here or here…
or here…
Why?
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
43. Since electrons are like waves around the nucleus, they
cannot have wavelengths that result in destructive
interference (which can collapse the wave).
As a result, the wavelengths must be multiples of
whole numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …), which explains why
there are areas where electrons cannot exist.
mismatch
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
44. This causes electrons to be confined to certain
probabilities around the nucleus.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
