The document discusses the key properties and reactions of acids and bases. It defines acids as substances that produce hydrogen ions (H+) in water and bases as substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH-). Acids react with metals, carbonates, conduct electricity, turn litmus paper red, and neutralize bases. Bases conduct electricity, turn litmus paper blue, and neutralize acids. Theories of acids and bases including Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis are explained. Strong and weak acids/bases, monoprotic/diprotic/triprotic acids, pH, titrations, and acid-base indicators are also covered.
neutralization (or neutralisation, see spelling differences) is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to form a salt. Water is frequently, but not necessarily, produced as well. Neutralizations with Arrhenius acids and bases always produce water where acid–alkali reactions produce water and a metal salt.
neutralization (or neutralisation, see spelling differences) is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to form a salt. Water is frequently, but not necessarily, produced as well. Neutralizations with Arrhenius acids and bases always produce water where acid–alkali reactions produce water and a metal salt.
Introduces the concepts involved in predicting whether substances are soluble or insoluble. Precipitation (exchange) reactions are also discussed, along with ionic equations and net ionic equations. General Chemistry
In chemistry, acids and bases have been defined differently by three sets of theories. One is the Arrhenius definition, which revolves around the idea that acids are substances that ionize (break off) in an aqueous solution to produce hydrogen (H+) ions while bases produce hydroxide (OH-) ions in solution.
This chapter talks about:
Acid –base equilibria
solubility equilibria
Buffer solution
Acid-base titration
Molar solubility and solubility
pH and Solubility
For more materials subscribe to channel:
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCzXxV4xER9NIWt316gfeO1w
Introduces the concepts involved in predicting whether substances are soluble or insoluble. Precipitation (exchange) reactions are also discussed, along with ionic equations and net ionic equations. General Chemistry
In chemistry, acids and bases have been defined differently by three sets of theories. One is the Arrhenius definition, which revolves around the idea that acids are substances that ionize (break off) in an aqueous solution to produce hydrogen (H+) ions while bases produce hydroxide (OH-) ions in solution.
This chapter talks about:
Acid –base equilibria
solubility equilibria
Buffer solution
Acid-base titration
Molar solubility and solubility
pH and Solubility
For more materials subscribe to channel:
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCzXxV4xER9NIWt316gfeO1w
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
2. Properties: (other than tasting sour and being corrosive)
1) React with metals
2) React with carbonates
3) Conduct electricity
4) Turn blue litmus paper red
5) Neutralize bases
ACIDS ARE CORROSIVE
ACIDS
3. Acids react with various metals based on the activity series
1) ACIDS REACT WITH METALS
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq)
4. What happens when you put baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) into
vinegar?
HC2H3O2(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaC2H3O2(aq)
2) ACIDS REACT WITH CARBONATES
5. Acids are made of ions, so in water these ions separate and can conduct
electricity
HCl(aq) H+
(aq) + Cl-
(aq)
3) ACIDS CONDUCT ELECTRICITY
8. 4) ACIDS TURN BLUE LITMUS PAPER RED
Blue litmus paper is an indicator and turns red when it touches acid
9. Acids can neutralize bases, so adding an acid to a base can eliminate
their corrosiveness
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Hydrochloricacid+sodiumhydroxidewater+salt(sodiumchloride)
5) ACIDS NEUTRALIZE BASES
10. Properties: (other than tasting bitter, feeling slippery)
1) Conduct electricity
2) Turn red litmus paper blue
3) Neutralize acids
BASES ARE CAUSTIC
BASES
11. Bases are made of ions, so in water these ions separate and can conduct
electricity
NaOH(aq) Na+
(aq) + OH-
(aq)
1) BASES CONDUCT ELECTRICITY
12. Red litmus paper is an indicator and turns blue when it touches base
2) BASES TURN RED LITMUS PAPER BLUE
13. Bases can neutralize acids, so adding a base to an acid can eliminate their corrosiveness.
(i.e. Antacids to neutralize stomach acid)
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)
3) BASES NEUTRALIZE ACIDS
14. ACIDS:
1) Non-metal + oxygen non-metal oxide
2) Non-metal oxide + water ACID!
EXAMPLE:
N2 + 2O2 2NO2
NO2 + H2O HNO3
BASES:
1) Metal + oxygen Metal oxide
2) Metal oxide + water BASE!
EXAMPLE:
Mg + O2 MgO
MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2
HOW TO MAKE ACIDS AND BASES
15. Indicators change color depending on whether a substance is acidic or
basic
ACID-BASE INDICATORS
17. An acid is a substance that dissociates in water to
produce one or more hydrogen ions (H+
)
ex. HBr(aq) H+
(aq) + Br-
(aq)
A base is a substance that dissociates in water to
form one or more hydroxide ions (OH-
)
ex. LiOH(aq) Li+
(aq) + OH-
(aq)
ARRHENIUS THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
18. My theory has a
limitation…
HBr(aq) H+
(aq) + Br-
(aq)
This reaction takes place in water! Without
water, acid properties and reactions can’t
exist.
A hydronium ion is actually produced (H3O+
)
to enable the effects of water.
HBr(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+
(aq) + Br-
(aq) Arrhenius’s theory does
not account for the
hydronium ion
ARRHENIUS THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
19. …more like 2
limitations…
NH3(aq) is a base
and does not have OH
Actual reaction:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4
+
(aq) + OH-
(aq)
Arrhenius’s theory does not account for bases
without OH groups
ARRHENIUS THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
20. An acid is a substance
from which a proton (H+
ion) can be removed
A base is a substance
that can remove a
proton (H+
ion) from an
acid
BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
21. H2O(l) + HCl(aq) H3O+
(aq) + Cl-
(aq)
Two molecules or ions that are related by the transfer of a proton
are called a conjugate acid-base pair
Conjugate acid-base pair
BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
22. HBr(g) + H2O(l) H3O+
(aq) + Br-
(aq)
Examples of conjugate acid-base pairs
Conjugate acid-base pair
Conjugate acid-base pair
BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
23. NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4
+
(aq) + OH-
(aq)
Examples of conjugate acid-base pairs
Conjugate acid-base pair
Conjugate acid-base pair
BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
24. Strong acid/base: dissociates completely in water
Examples: HCl, H2SO4 NaOH, Ba(OH)2
Weak acid/base: dissociates very slightly in water
Examples: CH3OOH (acetic acid) NH3
Conjugate acid-base pair
Conjugate acid-base pair Reversible…at equilibrium
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES
25. Monoprotic acid: Acid only has one hydrogen ion
Ex: HCl
Diprotic acid: Acid has two hydrogen ions
Ex: H2SO4
Triprotic acid: Acid has three hydrogen ions
Ex: H3PO4
MONOPROTIC, DIPROTIC, & TRIPROTIC ACIDS
26. Looking at a triprotic acid…
H3PO4
First ion dissociates: H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+
(aq) + H2PO4
-
(aq)
Second ion dissociates: H2PO4
-
(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+
(aq) + HPO4
2-
(aq)
Third ion dissociates: HPO4
2-
(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+
(aq) + PO4
3-
(aq)
STRONGEST acid (easiest to dissociate)
WEAKEST acid (hardest to dissociate)
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES
27. If the pH is greater than 7, then the
substance is basic
If the pH is less than 7, then the
substance is acidic
NEUTRAL
POWER OF HYDROGEN (pH)
28. H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+
(aq) + OH-
(aq)
[H3O+
] = [OH-
] = 1.0 x 10-7
mol/L
In a neutral solution at 25ºC…
Concentration of H3O+
Concentration of OH-
pH
Negative
logarithm of…
Or
-log
Concentration
of H3O+
ions (in
mol/L)
Or
[H3O+
]
POWER OF HYDROGEN (pH)
29. Therefore pH of water = -log [H3O+
]
= -log [1.0x10-7
]
= -(-7.00)
= 7.00
POWER OF HYDROGEN (pH)
31. pOH = -log [OH-
]
= -log [3.8x10-3
]
= 2.42
pH = 14 – pOH
= 14 – (2.42)
= 11.58
Calculate the pH of a solution with [OH-
] = 3.8x10-3
mol/L
POWER OF HYDROGEN (pH)
32. Stoichiometry calculations:
1) Write the balanced chemical reaction
2) Convert all measurements to moles (if you can)
3) Work with molar ratios to find out how much an acid is needed to
neutralize a given amount of base, or vice versa.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
For example:
How many moles of HCl would you need to neutralize 2 moles of NaOH?
ANSWER: 2 moles of HCl
NEUTRALIZATION STOICHIOMETRY
33. What volume of 0.250 mol/L H2SO4(aq) is needed to react completely
with 37.2mL of 0.650mol/L KOH(aq)?
H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + K2SO4(aq)
Step 1: Write the balanced chemical reaction
Step 2: Convert everything to moles
nKOH = C x V
= (0.650mol/L) x (0.0372L)
= 0.02418mol KOH
Step 3: Work with molar ratios
1mol H2SO4 = x
2mol KOH 0.02418mol KOH
x = 0.01209mol H2SO4
NOT DONE YET. Need to solve for volume of H2SO4
NEUTRALIZATION STOICHIOMETRY
34. V = n/C
= (0.01209mol)/(0.250mol/L)
= 0.04836L H2SO4
.: the volume of H2SO4 needed is 48.4mL
NEUTRALIZATION STOICHIOMETRY
What volume of 0.250 mol/L H2SO4(aq) is needed to react completely
with 37.2mL of 0.650mol/L KOH(aq)?
37. Equivalence point: The point (pH) in
the titration when an equal number of
moles of acid and base have been
added
End point: The point (pH) at which the
indicator changes colour indicating an
end to the titration
For a successful titration, choose an
indicator that changes colour at a pH
value close to the pH at the
equivalence point.
TITRATION
40. Strong acid + Strong base titration: resulting solution has a pH = 7, so
bromothymol blue could be used (pH range is 6.0 – 7.6)
Weak acid + Strong base titration: resulting solution has a pH > 7 so
phenolphthalein could be used (pH range is 8.2 – 10.0)
Strong acid + weak base titration: resulting solution has a pH < 7 so
methyl orange could be used (pH range is 3.1 – 4.4)
INDICATOR RANGES
43. Identify the acids and bases.
H2SO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaSO3(s) + 2 H2O
Identify the acid and base.
CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s)
Are the two reactions the same?
acid base
Lewis acidLewis base
LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES
44. Not all acid-base reactions involve proton transfer.
acid – chemical substance that can accept a pair of
electrons to form a covalent bond
base – chemical substance that can donate a pair
of electrons to form a covalent bond
neutralization – formation of a covalent bond
between an acid and base reactant
LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES
45. a) H+
(aq) + OH-
(aq) <===> H2O(l)
b) NH3 + BCl3
Lewis acid Lewis base
Lewis acidLewis base
BCl3:NH3
adduct: often formed between Lewis acids and bases, resulting in a single
product containing all atoms of all components.
LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES
46. c) sulfur dioxide + oxide ion sulfite ion
d) Identify the Lewis acid and base given:
OH-
+ CO2 HCO3
-
SO2 + O2-
SO3
2-
Lewis acid Lewis base
Lewis acidLewis base
LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES