How the matter is building up from the smallest parts until the greatest. A study the atom structure and a review along the History of the different theories and attemps in order to explain how our world works.

1. UUNNIITT 33
SSTTRRUUCCTTUURREE OOFF
MMAATTTTEERR

2. CCUUTTTTIINNGG EEDDGGEE OOFF TTHHEE
SSCCIIEENNTTIIFFIICC RREESSEEAARRCCHH
SSTTRRIINNGG TTHHEEOORRYY
 IIss oouurr mmoosstt rreecceenntt aatttteemmpptt ttoo aannsswweerr tthhee
ffoolllloowwiinngg qquueessttiioonnss::
WWhhaatt iiss tthhee wwoorrlldd mmaaddee ooff??
 HHooww ddooeess oouurr UUnniivveerrss wwoorrkk??

3. SSTTRRIINNGG TTHHEEOORRYY
 TThhee eesssseennttiiaall iiddeeaa bbeehhiinndd ssttrriinngg tthheeoorryy iiss
tthhiiss:: aallll ooff tthhee ddiiffffeerreenntt ''ffuunnddaammeennttaall ''
ppaarrttiicclleess ooff tthhee UUnniivveerrss aarree rreeaallllyy jjuusstt
ddiiffffeerreenntt mmaanniiffeessttaattiioonnss ooff oonnee bbaassiicc
oobbjjeecctt:: aa SSTTRRIINNGG..

4. SSPPAACCEE--TTIIMMEE
 SSoo,, uunnddeerr aann eexxttrreemmeellyy ppoowweerrffuull
''mmiiccrroossccooppee'' ((tthhaatt,, iitt ssttiillll ddooeessnn’’tt eexxiisstt)) wwee
wwoouulldd rreeaalliizzee tthhaatt tthhee ssppaaccee--ttiimmee iiss nnoott
rreeaallllyy ffoorrmmeedd bbyy ppooiinnttss,, bbuutt ttiinnyy llooooppss ooff
ssttrriinnggss.. SSuucchh aass tthhiiss::

5.  So, if string theory is correct, the entire
world is made of strings!
 Perhaps the most remarkable thing about string
theory is that such a simple idea works.
 But it should also be said that, to date, there is
no direct experimental evidence that string
theory itself is the correct description of Nature.
 A important part has been verified
experimentally with incredible precision but not
the whole theory as it is still under development.

6. AALLLL TTHHEE SSTTRRIINNGGSS
VVIIBBRRAATTEE
SSuucchh tthhee gguuiittaarr ssttrriinnggss ddoo iitt!!!!
TThheeyy ccaann ddoo iitt iinn aa ddiiffffeerreenntt wwaayyss!!!!

7.  EEvveerryy wwaayy SSTTRRIINNGGSS oosscciillllaattee pprroodduucceess
ddiiffffeerreenntt eexxhhiibbiittiioonn wwaayyss::
FFOORRCCEE EENNEERRGGYY MMAATTTTEERR
TThhee TTHHEEOORRYY ddeessccrriibbeess bbootthh tthhee
ffuunnddaammeennttaall bbuuiillddiinngg bblloocckkss oouutt ooff wwhhiicchh
tthhee wwoorrlldd iiss mmaaddee,, aanndd tthhee ffoorrcceess tthhrroouugghh
wwhhiicchh tthheessee bblloocckkss iinntteerraacctt..

8. FFOORRCCEE::
-- EEaacchh ooff tthheessee iiss pprroodduucceedd bbyy ffuunnddaammeennttaall
ppaarrttiicclleess tthhaatt aacctt aass ccaarrrriieerrss ooff tthhee ffoorrccee ::

9.  GGRRAAVVIITTYY FFOORRCCEE
 PPaarrttiiccllee:: GGRRAAVVIITTOONN

10.  ELECTROMAGNETIC FFOORRCCEE
 PPaarrttiiccllee:: PPHHOOTTOONN

11.  SSTTRROONNGG NNUUCCLLEEAARR FFOORRCCEE
 PPaarrttiicclleess:: eight particles
known
as GGLLUUOONNSS

12. WWEEAAKK NNUUCCLLEEAARR FFOORRCCEE
 PPaarrttiicclleess:: -- tthhee WW++
-- tthhee WW--
-- tthhee ZZ

13. EENNEERRGGYY
 EELLEECCTTRRIICC EE..
 PPOOTTEENNTTIIAALL EE..
 KKIINNEETTIICC EE..
 HHEEAATT EE..

14. MMAATTTTEERR
 SSoommeetthhiinngg tthhaatt ooccccuuppiieess ssppaaccee aanndd hhaass
mmaassss..
WWee wwiillll ssttuuddyy mmaatttteerr tthhiiss ccoouurrssee

15. HHooww mmaatttteerr iiss bbuuiilltt
uupp??
 DDuuee ttoo tthhee ddiiffffeerreenntt oosscciillllaattiioonnss ooff tthhee
ssttrriinnggss,, wwee hhaavvee ddiiffffeerreennttss kkiinnddss ooff
ppaarrttiicclleess..
 TThhee mmoosstt iimmppoorrttaanntt aanndd bbaassiicc oonneess aarree::
QQUUAARRKKSS EELLEECCTTRROONNSS
TThhiiss ppaarrttiicclleess jjooiinn ttooggeetthheerr bbuuiillddiinngg::

16. AATTOOMMSS
TThheeyy aarree ffoorrmmeedd bbyy::
- NNuucclleeuuss:: -- PPRROOTTOONNSS:: iiss mmaaddee ooff 33 qquuaarrkkss::
((22 uuppss aanndd 11 ddoowwnn))
-- NNEEUUTTRROONNSS:: iiss mmaaddee ooff 33 qquuaarrkkss::
((22 ddoowwnn ii 11 uupp))
-- SShheellll:: -- EELLEECCTTRROONNSS

17. Atoms bonded ttooggeetthheerr iinn ggrroouuppss
ttoo ffoorrmm::
 MMOOLLeeCCUULLEESS
 CCrryyssttaall llaattttiicceess

18. With aallll tthhee ddiiffffeerreennttss
ccoommbbiinnaattiioonnss aammoonnggss
aattoommss......
 AAllll tthhee ssuubbssttaanncceess wwee kknnooww aarree ffoorrmmeedd,, nnoott oonnllyy::
-- TThhee nnaattuurraall oonneess::
-- BBuutt aallssoo tthhee aarrttiiffiicciiaall oonneess::

19. AATTooMMIICC MMOODDEELLSS
 HHuummaann bbeeiinnggss aallwwaayyss hhaavvee bbeeeenn ttrryyiinngg ttoo
eexxppllaaiinn tthhee nnaattuurree……
 AAlloonngg tthhee HHiissttoorryy,, mmaannyy mmooddeellss wweerree
ssuuggggeesstteedd iinn oorrddeerr ttoo eexxppllaaiinn hhooww aallll tthhee
mmaatteerriiaall ssuubbssttaanncceess aarree mmaaddee……

20. ANCIENT GREEK
PHILOSOPHY SCHOOLS
EMPEDOCLES & ARISTOTLE
 All matter is a combination of 4 elements:
earth, water, air & fire

21. DDEEMMOOCCRRIITTUUSS
((446600 bb..cc.. –– 337700 bb..cc))
 Proposed that matter was composed of
tiny indivisible particles = atoms
 ATOM → from the greek a=without +
tomus = division
Not based on experimental data

22. Alchemy (next 2000 years)
 Mixture of science and mysticism.
 Lab procedures were developed, but
alchemists did not perform controlled
experiments like true scientists.

23. DDAALLTTOONN
((11880088))
 British Schoolteacher
– based his theory on others’ experimental data
 Billiard Ball Model
– atom is a
uniform,
solid sphere
 (protons, neutron & electrons
not discovered yet!!!)

24. Dalton’s Four
Postulates
 1. Elements are composed of small indivisible
particles called atoms. (*** not true)
 2. Atoms of the same element are identical.
Atoms of different elements are different.
 3. Atoms of different elements combine
together in simple proportions to create a
compound. (*)
 4. In a chemical reaction,
atoms are rearranged,
but not changed.

25. TTHHOOMMSSOONN
11889977
 Discovered Electrons = negative particles
 within the atom → so atom divisible
 Plum-pudding Model
“plum cake”

26. Plum-pudding Model
– positive sphere (pudding) with
negative electrons (plums) dispersed
throughout
– So,
atom = neutral

27. RRUUTTHHEERRFFOORRDD
11991111
 Gold Foil Experiment
 Discovered the nucleus
– Small, dense, positive
charge in the center of
the atom = nucleus
– Most of the atom
is empty
 Nuclear Model

28. Nuclear Model
 Small, dense, positive nucleus (with
protons) surrounded by negative electrons
(where?? not clear)

29. BBOOHHRR
11991133
 - Energy Levels
– electrons can only exist in specific energy
states →
 Planetary Model: electrons orbit the
nucleus, like planets orbiting the Sun.

30. Planetary Model
Electrons move in circular
orbits with specific energy
levels

31. SCHRÖDINGER
1926
 Quantum mechanics
– electrons can only exist in specified energy
states
 Electron cloud model
– ORBITAL: region around
the nucleus where e- are
likely to be found

32. CHADWICK
1932
 Discovered neutrons
– neutral particles in the nucleus of an atom

33. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 So the ATOMIC STRUCTURE is:
made up of a central nucleus (containing
protons and neutrons), surrounded by
electrons in diferent shells. Most of the
atom is empty space.

34. ATOMIC SCALE

35. HOW CAN WE WEIGHT
THE ATOMS MASS?
 Because of the very small mass of atoms,
their mass is measured in atomic mass
units (u). 1 u = 1,67 × 10−24 g

36. CHARGE SUBATOMIC
PARTICLES

37. QQUUAANNTTUUMM MMEECCHHAANNIICC
((ccuurrrreenntt mmooddeell))
PARTICLES
((ssyymmbbooll))
MMAASSSS
((uu))
CCHHAARRGGEE
PPRROOTTOONN
((pp++))
11 ++
NNEEUUTTRROONN
((nn00))
11 00
EELLEECCTTRROONN
((ee--))
11//22000000 --

38. NNUUCCLLII
 The central nucleus contains protons
and neutrons
 The atomic number (Z) is the number of
protons in an atom.
AAttoommiicc nnuummbbeerr
ZZ == pp++

39. TThhee aattoommiicc mmaassss nnuummbbeerr ((AA)) iiss tthhee
nnuummbbeerr ooff pprroottoonnss aanndd nneeuuttrroonnss iinn tthhee
nnuucclleeuuss ooff aann aattoomm..
MMaassss nnuummbbeerr
AA == pp++ ++ nn00
 The standard notation that is used to
write an element, where X is the element
symbol, A is the atomic mass number and
Z is the atomic number.

40. Every element is distinguished from the orders bbeeccaauussee ooff iitt aattoommiicc
nnuummbbeerr,, tthheerreeffoorree bbeeccaauussee ooff iitt nnuummbbeerr ooff pprroottoonnss..

41. ISOTOPES
 The isotope of a particular element is made up of atoms which
have the same number of protons as the atoms in the original
element, but a different number of neutrons. This means that not all
atoms of an element will have the same atomic mass.
 They have = Z i ǂ A

42.  The relative atomic mass of an
element is the average mass of all the
naturally occurring isotopes of that
element.
 The units for relative atomic mass are
atomic mass units.
 The relative atomic mass is written under
the elements' symbol on the periodic
table.
 So, the relative atomic mass
has “comes”

43.  Carbon-14 dating is a
way of determining the
age of certain archeological
artifacts of a biological
Origin up to about 50,000
years old.
It is used in dating things such
as bone, cloth, wood and plant fibers that
were created in the relatively recent past
by human activities.

44. EELLEECCTTRROONNSS
 EElleeccttrroonnss mmoovvee aarroouunndd tthhee nnuucclleeuuss ooff tthhee aattoomm iinn aa rreeggiioonn ooff ssppaaccee
iinn wwhhiicchh tthhee eexxaacctt ppoossiittiioonnss ooff tthhee eelleeccttrroonnss ccaannnnoott bbee ddeetteerrmmiinneedd
aatt aannyy oonnee ttiimmee,, aanndd eeaacchh sshheellll ccoonnssiisstt ooff::
AATTooMMIICCSS OORRBBIITTAALLSS
- AAnn oorrbbiittaall ddeeffiinneess tthhee ssppaaccee iinn wwhhiicchh aann eelleeccttrroonn iiss mmoosstt lliikkeellyy ttoo bbee
ffoouunndd..
- TThheerree aarree 44 kkiinnddss ooff oorrbbiittaallss iinn 77 sshheellllss,, iinnccrreeaassiinngg iinn rraaddiiuuss wwhhiitthh
ddiissttaannccee ffrroomm tthhee nnuucclleeuuss:: ss,, pp,, dd,, ff
((TToo rreemmeemmbbeerr tthheemm:: ““ssooppaa ddee ffiiddeeuuss””))

45. -- TThheeyy hhaavvee ddiiffffeerreenntt sshhaappeess..
- TThheeyy ccaann hhoolldd uupp ttoo aa cceerrttaaiinn nnuummbbeerr ooff
eelleeccttrroonnss..
- TThheerree iiss oonnllyy 11 ““ss”” sspphheerriiccaallllyy sshhaappeedd
- TThheerree aarree 33 ooff ““pp”” dduummbbbbeellll sshhaappeedd
- TThheerree aarree 55 ooff ““dd””
- TThheerree aarree 77 ooff ““ff””
- WWhhiicchh aarree tthheessee sshhaappeess??

46. OORRBBIITTAALLSS
AATTÒÒMMIICCSS
ff
dd
pp
ss

48.  EEaacchh oorrbbiittaall oonnllyy ccaann hhoolldd uupp 22 ee--
 SSoo::
- OOrrbbiittaallss ““ss”” ccaann hhoolldd uupp:: 22 xx 11 == 22
- OOrrbbiittaallss ““pp”” ccaann hhoolldd uupp:: 22 xx 33 == 66
- OOrrbbiittaallss ““dd”” ccaann hhoolldd uupp:: 22 xx 55 == 1100
- OOrrbbiittaallss ““ff”” ccaann hhoolldd uupp:: 22 xx 77 == 1144
TThhee aarrrraannggeemmeenntt ooff eelleeccttrroonnss iinn aann aattoomm is
EELLEECCTTRROONN CCOONNFFIIGGUURRAATTIIOONN

49. MMÖÖEELLLLEERR
RRUULLEE
TThhee aarrrraannggeemmeenntt
ssttaarrttss ffrroomm tthhee
iinnnneerrmmoosstt sshheellll ttoo tthhee
oouutteerrmmoosstt sshheellll
ffoolllloowwiinngg tthhee aarrrroowwss..

50. AATTOOMM IISS
EELLEECCTTRRIICCAALLLLYY
NNEEUUTTRRAALL
 AAttoomm hhaass tthhee ssaammee nnuummbbeerr ooff pprroottoonnss
aanndd eelleeccttrroonnss,, ssoo,, tthhee nnuummbbeerr ooff ppoossiittiivvee
cchhaarrggeess iiss eeqquuaall ttoo ooff nneeggaattiivvee cchhaarrggeess
aanndd tthheerreeffoorree aattoomm iiss eelleeccttrriiccaallllyy nneeuuttrraall..
++ == --

51.  The electrons in the outermost energy
level are called valence electrons.
 The electrons in an atom that are not
valence electrons are called core
electrons.

52.  BBuutt,, hhoowweevveerr,, tthhee aattoomm ssoommeettiimmeess ccaann ggaaiinn oorr
lloossee ssoommee eelleeccttrroonnss,, ssoo nnooww tthhee aattoomm iiss
eelleeccttrriiccaallllyy cchhaarrggeedd,, iitt iiss ccaalllleedd:: IIOONN..
 AAnn iioonn wwiitthh aa ppoossiittiivvee cchhaarrggee,, ffoorrmmeedd wwhheenn aann
aattoomm lloosseess eelleeccttrroonnss,, iiss ccaalllleedd::
CCAATTIIOONN..
 AAnn iioonn wwiitthh aa nneeggaattiivvee cchhaarrggee,, ffoorrmmeedd wwhheenn aann
aattoomm ggaaiinnss eelleeccttrroonnss,, iiss ccaalllleedd:: AANNIIOONN..

53.  Atoms whose outermost energy level is
full, are less chemically reactive and
therefore more stable, than those atoms
whose outermost energy level is not full.
 These are the NOBLE GASOS

54.  The other elements are unstable and need
to gain, lose or share valence electron in
order to be more energetically stable.

55. THE OCTET RULE

57. Rosa Mª Rodríguez García-Caro
Physics and Chemistry
Departament
IES ALCÚDIA