1) The document discusses normal subgroups, providing examples and theorems about their properties.
2) A subgroup H of a group G is normal if aH=Ha for all a in G. Some key results are that subgroups of abelian groups and subgroups of index 2 are always normal.
3) The document provides examples of normal subgroups, such as the special linear group SLn,R being normal in the general linear group GLn,R. It also gives a counterexample to show not all groups where every subgroup is normal must be abelian.
Normal subgroups are subgroups where conjugation does not affect membership. A subgroup N of a group G is normal if gng-1 is in N for all g in G and n in N. A subgroup N is normal if and only if every left coset of N is also a right coset of N. If every left coset equals a right coset, then conjugation preserves membership in N, making N a normal subgroup.
This document discusses cyclic groups and their properties. It begins by defining a cyclic group as a group that can be generated by one of its elements. It then provides examples of cyclic groups like the integers under addition and groups of integers modulo n. The key properties of cyclic groups are then outlined, including that cyclic groups are abelian, and the criteria for determining subgroup order and generators. Finite cyclic groups are shown to have unique subgroups for each divisor of the group order. The document concludes by discussing the classification and enumeration of subgroups in cyclic groups.
This document provides a summary and review of key concepts from Abstract Algebra Part 1, including:
- Groups and their properties of closure, associativity, identity, and inverses
- Examples of finite and infinite, abelian and non-abelian groups
- Subgroups, including cyclic subgroups, tests for subgroups, and examples
- Additional concepts like the order of an element, conjugation, and the center of a group
1. The document introduces groups and related concepts in mathematics.
2. It defines a group as a set with a binary operation that satisfies associativity, identity, and inverse properties. Abelian groups are groups where the binary operation is commutative.
3. Examples of groups include the complex numbers under multiplication, rational numbers under addition, and translations of the plane under composition. Subgroups are subsets of a group that are also groups under the same binary operation.
The document defines and discusses several key concepts relating to groups in abstract algebra:
- A group is defined as a non-empty set together with a binary operation that satisfies closure, associativity, identity, and inverse properties.
- An abelian (or commutative) group is one where the binary operation is commutative. Examples of abelian groups include integers under addition.
- The quaternion group is a non-abelian group of order 8 under multiplication.
- Theorems are presented regarding the uniqueness of identity and inverses in a group, as well as cancellation, reverse order, and inverse properties of groups.
Unit I of the syllabus covers propositional logic and counting theory. It introduces concepts such as propositions, logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, negation, implication and biconditional. It discusses how to represent compound statements using these connectives and their truth tables. The unit also covers topics like predicate logic, methods of proof, mathematical induction and fundamental counting principles like permutations and combinations. It aims to provide the logical foundations for discrete mathematics concepts that will be useful in computer science and information technology.
Group Theory and Its Application: Beamer Presentation (PPT)SIRAJAHMAD36
This document provides an overview of a seminar presentation on group theory and its applications. The presentation covers topics such as the definition of groups, order of groups and group elements, modular arithmetic, subgroups, Lagrange's theorem, and Sylow's theorems. It also discusses some examples of groups and applications of group theory in fields like algebraic topology, number theory, and physics. The presentation aims to introduce fundamental concepts in modern algebra through group theory.
Normal subgroups are subgroups where conjugation does not affect membership. A subgroup N of a group G is normal if gng-1 is in N for all g in G and n in N. A subgroup N is normal if and only if every left coset of N is also a right coset of N. If every left coset equals a right coset, then conjugation preserves membership in N, making N a normal subgroup.
This document discusses cyclic groups and their properties. It begins by defining a cyclic group as a group that can be generated by one of its elements. It then provides examples of cyclic groups like the integers under addition and groups of integers modulo n. The key properties of cyclic groups are then outlined, including that cyclic groups are abelian, and the criteria for determining subgroup order and generators. Finite cyclic groups are shown to have unique subgroups for each divisor of the group order. The document concludes by discussing the classification and enumeration of subgroups in cyclic groups.
This document provides a summary and review of key concepts from Abstract Algebra Part 1, including:
- Groups and their properties of closure, associativity, identity, and inverses
- Examples of finite and infinite, abelian and non-abelian groups
- Subgroups, including cyclic subgroups, tests for subgroups, and examples
- Additional concepts like the order of an element, conjugation, and the center of a group
1. The document introduces groups and related concepts in mathematics.
2. It defines a group as a set with a binary operation that satisfies associativity, identity, and inverse properties. Abelian groups are groups where the binary operation is commutative.
3. Examples of groups include the complex numbers under multiplication, rational numbers under addition, and translations of the plane under composition. Subgroups are subsets of a group that are also groups under the same binary operation.
The document defines and discusses several key concepts relating to groups in abstract algebra:
- A group is defined as a non-empty set together with a binary operation that satisfies closure, associativity, identity, and inverse properties.
- An abelian (or commutative) group is one where the binary operation is commutative. Examples of abelian groups include integers under addition.
- The quaternion group is a non-abelian group of order 8 under multiplication.
- Theorems are presented regarding the uniqueness of identity and inverses in a group, as well as cancellation, reverse order, and inverse properties of groups.
Unit I of the syllabus covers propositional logic and counting theory. It introduces concepts such as propositions, logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, negation, implication and biconditional. It discusses how to represent compound statements using these connectives and their truth tables. The unit also covers topics like predicate logic, methods of proof, mathematical induction and fundamental counting principles like permutations and combinations. It aims to provide the logical foundations for discrete mathematics concepts that will be useful in computer science and information technology.
Group Theory and Its Application: Beamer Presentation (PPT)SIRAJAHMAD36
This document provides an overview of a seminar presentation on group theory and its applications. The presentation covers topics such as the definition of groups, order of groups and group elements, modular arithmetic, subgroups, Lagrange's theorem, and Sylow's theorems. It also discusses some examples of groups and applications of group theory in fields like algebraic topology, number theory, and physics. The presentation aims to introduce fundamental concepts in modern algebra through group theory.
This ppt covers the topic of Abstract Algebra in M.Sc. Mathematics 1 semester topic of Algebraic closed field is Introduction , field & sub field , finite extension field , algebraic element.
1. The document discusses groups, subgroups, cosets, normal subgroups, quotient groups, and homomorphisms.
2. It defines cosets, proves Lagrange's theorem that the order of a subgroup divides the order of the group, and provides examples of finding cosets.
3. Normal subgroups are introduced, and it is shown that the set of cosets of a normal subgroup forms a group under a defined operation, known as the quotient group. Homomorphisms between groups are defined, and examples are given.
This document provides an overview of abstract algebra and key concepts such as groups. It discusses how the word "algebra" is derived from an Arabian word meaning "union of broken parts." It also outlines important mathematicians who contributed to the development of algebra, such as Al Khwarizmi, the "father of algebra." The document defines what a set and group are, including the properties a group must satisfy like closure, associative, identity, and inverse elements. Examples of groups are given like integers, rational numbers, and matrices. Applications of group theory in fields like physics, chemistry, and technology are mentioned.
This document discusses group theory concepts including:
1) Definitions of groups, abelian groups, order of groups and elements.
2) Properties of cyclic groups, including examples like Zn and Z.
3) Introduction to normal subgroups and their properties. Factor groups and homomorphisms are also discussed.
Composing functions involves taking two functions, f(x) and g(x), and substituting the output of g(x) wherever x appears in f(x). For the functions f(x) = 3x^2 + 4 and g(x) = 6x - 8, the composition f(g(x)) is found by substituting g(x) = 6x - 8 for x in f(x), giving f(g(x)) = 3(6x - 8)^2 + 4, which simplifies to 108x^2 - 288x + 22.
Unit 1: Topological spaces (its definition and definition of open sets)nasserfuzt
Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the definition of topology with examples
2. To know the intersection and union of topologies
3. To understand the comparison of topologies
The document discusses symmetric groups and permutations. Some key points:
- A symmetric group SX is the group of all permutations of a set X under function composition.
- Sn, the symmetric group of degree n, represents permutations of the set {1,2,...,n}.
- Permutations can be written using cycle notation, such as (1 2 3) or (1 4).
- Disjoint cycles commute; the product of two permutations is their composition as functions.
- Any permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles of length ≥2. Cycles of even length decompose into an odd number of transpositions, and vice versa for odd cycles.
The chain rule helps us find a derivative of a composition of functions. It turns out that it's the product of the derivatives of the composed functions.
This document discusses linear independence, basis, and dimension in linear algebra. It defines linear independence as vectors being linearly independent if the only solution that produces the zero vector is the trivial solution with all coefficients equal to zero. A basis is defined as a set of linearly independent vectors that span the vector space. The dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors in any basis of that space. The dimensions of the four fundamental subspaces (row space, column space, nullspace, and left nullspace) of a matrix are defined in terms of the rank of the matrix.
This document provides an overview of topics in real analysis including countable and uncountable sets, open and closed sets, connected sets, and limit points. It defines bounded and unbounded sets, with an unbounded set not being of finite size. Open sets are defined as sets containing all their limit points, while closed sets can be approximated in a metric space by containing limit points. Limit points are also defined as points that can be approximated by other points in a set's neighborhood excluding the point itself. Images are provided as examples of open and closed sets.
1) The document uses mathematical induction to prove several formulas.
2) It demonstrates proofs for formulas like 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n-1) = n^2 and 2 + 4 + ... + 2n = n(n+1).
3) The proofs follow the standard structure of mathematical induction, showing the base case is true and using the induction hypothesis to show if the statement is true for n it is also true for n+1.
This document discusses sets and De Morgan's laws. It provides definitions of set operations like union, intersection, and complement. It defines De Morgan's laws, which state that the complement of a union is the intersection of complements, and the complement of an intersection is the union of complements. An example is given to prove De Morgan's law for the intersection of sets A and B being equal to the union of their complements. The solution finds the intersection and complements of sets A and B defined over a universal set U and shows they are equal, proving the law.
Abstract algebra & its applications (1)drselvarani
This document provides information about a state level workshop on abstract algebra and its applications that was held on August 28, 2015 at Sri Sarada Niketan College for Women in Amaravathipudur, India. The workshop included a presentation by Dr. S. SelvaRani, the principal of the college, on the topic of abstract algebra and its applications. Abstract algebra is the study of algebraic structures like groups, rings, and fields. It has many applications in areas like number theory, geometry, physics, and more. Representation theory is also discussed as an important branch of abstract algebra.
The document defines definite integrals and discusses their properties. It states that a definite integral evaluates to a single number by integrating a function over a closed interval from a lower limit to an upper limit. It gives examples of using definite integrals to find areas bounded by curves. The mean value theorem for integrals is also introduced, which states that there is a rectangle between the inscribed and circumscribed rectangles with an area equal to the region under the curve. Exercises are provided on evaluating definite integrals and applying the mean value theorem.
Lagrange's theorem states that for any finite group G and subgroup H of G, the order of H divides the order of G. The document provides the proof of Lagrange's theorem and several examples. It also discusses corollaries, including that every group of prime order is cyclic, every group of order less than 6 is abelian, and the order of an element must divide the group order. However, the converse of Lagrange's theorem is false - there can exist groups where not every divisor of the group order is a possible subgroup order.
1. A function is a relation where each input is paired with exactly one output.
2. To determine if a relation is a function, use the vertical line test - if any vertical line intersects more than one point, it is not a function.
3. To find the value of a function, substitute the given value for x into the function equation and simplify.
This document discusses linear transformations and their properties. It defines a linear transformation as a function between vector spaces that preserves vector addition and scalar multiplication. The kernel of a linear transformation is the set of vectors mapped to the zero vector, and is a subspace of the domain. The range is the set of images of all vectors under the transformation. Matrices can represent linear transformations, with the matrix equation representing the transformation of vectors. Examples are provided to illustrate key concepts such as kernels, ranges, and matrix representations of linear transformations.
1. The document discusses group theory and provides examples of familiar groups like integers under addition and complex numbers under multiplication.
2. Symmetry groups are introduced, which are sets of isometries that carry a figure onto itself. Examples of symmetry groups of a line segment and equilateral triangle are given.
3. Dihedral groups Dn are defined as the symmetry groups of a regular n-gon and contain rotational and reflective symmetries. Cyclic groups Zn are subgroups of Dn containing only rotational symmetries.
Section 9: Equivalence Relations & CosetsKevin Johnson
This document discusses equivalence relations and cosets from abstract algebra. It contains the following key points:
1) It defines equivalence relations as relations that satisfy reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. Modular arithmetic and group conjugacy are given as examples of equivalence relations.
2) It introduces the concept of equivalence classes, which are the subsets of elements related by an equivalence relation. It proves that the equivalence classes partition the set.
3) It defines right cosets as translations of a subgroup by group elements. Examples are given of finding the right cosets of subgroups of Z6 and S3.
This document contains sections from a textbook on abstract algebra covering relations, functions, and inverse functions. Some key points:
- It defines relations as subsets of Cartesian products and distinguishes them from Cartesian products.
- It provides examples of relations and determines their domains and ranges.
- It defines functions as special types of relations where each element in the domain maps to only one element in the range.
- It discusses properties of functions like being one-to-one, onto, and invertible. A function must be one-to-one and onto to be invertible.
- It provides examples of functions and determines if they are one-to-one, onto, invertible, and calculates their
This ppt covers the topic of Abstract Algebra in M.Sc. Mathematics 1 semester topic of Algebraic closed field is Introduction , field & sub field , finite extension field , algebraic element.
1. The document discusses groups, subgroups, cosets, normal subgroups, quotient groups, and homomorphisms.
2. It defines cosets, proves Lagrange's theorem that the order of a subgroup divides the order of the group, and provides examples of finding cosets.
3. Normal subgroups are introduced, and it is shown that the set of cosets of a normal subgroup forms a group under a defined operation, known as the quotient group. Homomorphisms between groups are defined, and examples are given.
This document provides an overview of abstract algebra and key concepts such as groups. It discusses how the word "algebra" is derived from an Arabian word meaning "union of broken parts." It also outlines important mathematicians who contributed to the development of algebra, such as Al Khwarizmi, the "father of algebra." The document defines what a set and group are, including the properties a group must satisfy like closure, associative, identity, and inverse elements. Examples of groups are given like integers, rational numbers, and matrices. Applications of group theory in fields like physics, chemistry, and technology are mentioned.
This document discusses group theory concepts including:
1) Definitions of groups, abelian groups, order of groups and elements.
2) Properties of cyclic groups, including examples like Zn and Z.
3) Introduction to normal subgroups and their properties. Factor groups and homomorphisms are also discussed.
Composing functions involves taking two functions, f(x) and g(x), and substituting the output of g(x) wherever x appears in f(x). For the functions f(x) = 3x^2 + 4 and g(x) = 6x - 8, the composition f(g(x)) is found by substituting g(x) = 6x - 8 for x in f(x), giving f(g(x)) = 3(6x - 8)^2 + 4, which simplifies to 108x^2 - 288x + 22.
Unit 1: Topological spaces (its definition and definition of open sets)nasserfuzt
Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the definition of topology with examples
2. To know the intersection and union of topologies
3. To understand the comparison of topologies
The document discusses symmetric groups and permutations. Some key points:
- A symmetric group SX is the group of all permutations of a set X under function composition.
- Sn, the symmetric group of degree n, represents permutations of the set {1,2,...,n}.
- Permutations can be written using cycle notation, such as (1 2 3) or (1 4).
- Disjoint cycles commute; the product of two permutations is their composition as functions.
- Any permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles of length ≥2. Cycles of even length decompose into an odd number of transpositions, and vice versa for odd cycles.
The chain rule helps us find a derivative of a composition of functions. It turns out that it's the product of the derivatives of the composed functions.
This document discusses linear independence, basis, and dimension in linear algebra. It defines linear independence as vectors being linearly independent if the only solution that produces the zero vector is the trivial solution with all coefficients equal to zero. A basis is defined as a set of linearly independent vectors that span the vector space. The dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors in any basis of that space. The dimensions of the four fundamental subspaces (row space, column space, nullspace, and left nullspace) of a matrix are defined in terms of the rank of the matrix.
This document provides an overview of topics in real analysis including countable and uncountable sets, open and closed sets, connected sets, and limit points. It defines bounded and unbounded sets, with an unbounded set not being of finite size. Open sets are defined as sets containing all their limit points, while closed sets can be approximated in a metric space by containing limit points. Limit points are also defined as points that can be approximated by other points in a set's neighborhood excluding the point itself. Images are provided as examples of open and closed sets.
1) The document uses mathematical induction to prove several formulas.
2) It demonstrates proofs for formulas like 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n-1) = n^2 and 2 + 4 + ... + 2n = n(n+1).
3) The proofs follow the standard structure of mathematical induction, showing the base case is true and using the induction hypothesis to show if the statement is true for n it is also true for n+1.
This document discusses sets and De Morgan's laws. It provides definitions of set operations like union, intersection, and complement. It defines De Morgan's laws, which state that the complement of a union is the intersection of complements, and the complement of an intersection is the union of complements. An example is given to prove De Morgan's law for the intersection of sets A and B being equal to the union of their complements. The solution finds the intersection and complements of sets A and B defined over a universal set U and shows they are equal, proving the law.
Abstract algebra & its applications (1)drselvarani
This document provides information about a state level workshop on abstract algebra and its applications that was held on August 28, 2015 at Sri Sarada Niketan College for Women in Amaravathipudur, India. The workshop included a presentation by Dr. S. SelvaRani, the principal of the college, on the topic of abstract algebra and its applications. Abstract algebra is the study of algebraic structures like groups, rings, and fields. It has many applications in areas like number theory, geometry, physics, and more. Representation theory is also discussed as an important branch of abstract algebra.
The document defines definite integrals and discusses their properties. It states that a definite integral evaluates to a single number by integrating a function over a closed interval from a lower limit to an upper limit. It gives examples of using definite integrals to find areas bounded by curves. The mean value theorem for integrals is also introduced, which states that there is a rectangle between the inscribed and circumscribed rectangles with an area equal to the region under the curve. Exercises are provided on evaluating definite integrals and applying the mean value theorem.
Lagrange's theorem states that for any finite group G and subgroup H of G, the order of H divides the order of G. The document provides the proof of Lagrange's theorem and several examples. It also discusses corollaries, including that every group of prime order is cyclic, every group of order less than 6 is abelian, and the order of an element must divide the group order. However, the converse of Lagrange's theorem is false - there can exist groups where not every divisor of the group order is a possible subgroup order.
1. A function is a relation where each input is paired with exactly one output.
2. To determine if a relation is a function, use the vertical line test - if any vertical line intersects more than one point, it is not a function.
3. To find the value of a function, substitute the given value for x into the function equation and simplify.
This document discusses linear transformations and their properties. It defines a linear transformation as a function between vector spaces that preserves vector addition and scalar multiplication. The kernel of a linear transformation is the set of vectors mapped to the zero vector, and is a subspace of the domain. The range is the set of images of all vectors under the transformation. Matrices can represent linear transformations, with the matrix equation representing the transformation of vectors. Examples are provided to illustrate key concepts such as kernels, ranges, and matrix representations of linear transformations.
1. The document discusses group theory and provides examples of familiar groups like integers under addition and complex numbers under multiplication.
2. Symmetry groups are introduced, which are sets of isometries that carry a figure onto itself. Examples of symmetry groups of a line segment and equilateral triangle are given.
3. Dihedral groups Dn are defined as the symmetry groups of a regular n-gon and contain rotational and reflective symmetries. Cyclic groups Zn are subgroups of Dn containing only rotational symmetries.
Section 9: Equivalence Relations & CosetsKevin Johnson
This document discusses equivalence relations and cosets from abstract algebra. It contains the following key points:
1) It defines equivalence relations as relations that satisfy reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. Modular arithmetic and group conjugacy are given as examples of equivalence relations.
2) It introduces the concept of equivalence classes, which are the subsets of elements related by an equivalence relation. It proves that the equivalence classes partition the set.
3) It defines right cosets as translations of a subgroup by group elements. Examples are given of finding the right cosets of subgroups of Z6 and S3.
This document contains sections from a textbook on abstract algebra covering relations, functions, and inverse functions. Some key points:
- It defines relations as subsets of Cartesian products and distinguishes them from Cartesian products.
- It provides examples of relations and determines their domains and ranges.
- It defines functions as special types of relations where each element in the domain maps to only one element in the range.
- It discusses properties of functions like being one-to-one, onto, and invertible. A function must be one-to-one and onto to be invertible.
- It provides examples of functions and determines if they are one-to-one, onto, invertible, and calculates their
This document contains a review for Midterm Exam 2 in Abstract Algebra. It includes solutions to 6 problems:
1) Showing that the center and centralizer of a group are subgroups.
2) Identifying which of three direct products are abelian and cyclic.
3) Proving that a direct product of subgroups is a subgroup and a direct product is abelian if the factors are.
4) Showing conjugation and inversion maps are bijections.
5) Writing permutations as cycles and products of cycles, and determining evenness and order.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in probability, including:
- Random experiments, sample spaces, elementary outcomes, and events
- Classical and empirical definitions of probability
- Operations on events like unions, intersections, complements
- Conditional probability and the multiplication rule
- Independent events and pairwise/mutual independence
It defines key terms and concepts and provides examples to illustrate probability calculations and relationships between events. Assignments are given to extend the formulas provided to additional events.
1. The document introduces the concept of a random variable, which is a real-valued function defined on a sample space that assigns probabilities to subsets of real numbers.
2. A random variable X is defined such that the preimage of any Borel set under X is an event in the probability space. This ensures probabilities can be properly defined for all Borel subsets of real numbers.
3. A function X is a random variable if and only if the preimage of all sets of the form (-∞,a] is an event, for all real a. This provides a simple check for whether a function is a random variable.
Matrix Transformations on Some Difference Sequence SpacesIOSR Journals
The sequence spaces 𝑙∞(𝑢,𝑣,Δ), 𝑐0(𝑢,𝑣,Δ) and 𝑐(𝑢,𝑣,Δ) were recently introduced. The matrix classes (𝑐 𝑢,𝑣,Δ :𝑐) and (𝑐 𝑢,𝑣,Δ :𝑙∞) were characterized. The object of this paper is to further determine the necessary and sufficient conditions on an infinite matrix to characterize the matrix classes (𝑐 𝑢,𝑣,Δ ∶𝑏𝑠) and (𝑐 𝑢,𝑣,Δ ∶ 𝑙𝑝). It is observed that the later characterizations are additions to the existing ones
This document provides an introduction to gauge theory and quantum electrodynamics (QED) for beginners. It discusses several key points:
1) Gauge transformations describe physically equivalent vector potentials in electromagnetism. This leads to the idea of gauge freedom and gauge fixing.
2) Quantum field theory incorporates different fields that correspond to different particles, such as photons and electrons.
3) The QED Lagrangian can be derived by demanding local U(1) gauge symmetry of the Dirac Lagrangian for electrons. This necessitates introducing the photon field and its coupling to electrons.
4) QED has been very successful in explaining precision experimental results through perturbative calculations using its Feynman rules.
This document is the preface to a textbook on number theory. It discusses the goals of the textbook, which are to encourage independent thinking and problem solving rather than rote memorization. Number theory is well-suited for this purpose as patterns in the natural numbers can be discerned through observation and experimentation, but proving theorems requires rigorous demonstration. The textbook was originally written for a course at Brown University designed to attract non-science majors to mathematics. The prerequisites are few, requiring only high school algebra and a willingness to experiment, make mistakes, learn from them, and persevere.
1. The document discusses analytic functions of complex variables through examples. It defines analytic functions as those whose derivatives of all orders exist in the region of analyticity.
2. The Cauchy-Riemann equations are derived and their implications are explored, including that they imply the Laplace equation and orthogonality of level curves.
3. Several examples are worked through to determine if functions are analytic by checking if they satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations. The Cauchy-Riemann equations are also derived in polar coordinates.
The document discusses uniform boundedness of shift operators on sequence spaces. It begins by defining shift operators Sk that shift sequences in l^p_n spaces. It proves that the norms of Sk are uniformly bounded on l^p_n if and only if the norms in l^p_n and classical l^r spaces are equivalent for some 1 ≤ r < ∞. It establishes several preliminary results about Banach function spaces and bounded linear operators between such spaces. It proves corollaries about families of linear operators from l^p_n to l^q_n being uniformly bounded. The key results show conditions under which the norms of shift operators or families of operators are uniformly bounded.
Generalised Statistical Convergence For Double SequencesIOSR Journals
Recently, the concept of 𝛽-statistical Convergence was introduced considering a sequence of infinite
matrices 𝛽 = (𝑏𝑛𝑘 𝑖 ). Later, it was used to define and study 𝛽-statistical limit point, 𝛽-statistical cluster point,
𝑠𝑡𝛽 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 inferior and 𝑠𝑡𝛽 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 superior. In this paper we analogously define and study 2𝛽-statistical
limit, 2𝛽-statistical cluster point, 𝑠𝑡2𝛽 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 inferior and 𝑠𝑡2𝛽 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 superior for double sequences.
1) The document reviews Seiberg-Witten duality by first discussing N=2 supersymmetric Yang-Mills (SYM) theory and the topics needed to understand it, such as SUSY algebra, massless multiplets, massive multiplets, chiral and vector superfields, and N=1 SYM.
2) It then briefly discusses Olive-Montonen duality from 1977 before reviewing Seiberg-Witten duality from 1994.
3) The objective is to work out the form of the low energy effective action for N=2 SYM theory, which involves finding the prepotential term.
Module 1 (Part 1)-Sets and Number Systems.pdfGaleJean
1. Fossil records of whale evolution: Search for "whale evolution fossils" or "transitional fossils of whales."2. Comparative anatomy of homologous structures: Look for images of "homologous structures in different species" or specific examples like "homologous forelimbs in vertebrates."3. Molecular biology and genetic similarities: Search for "DNA sequences in different species," "genetic similarities between primates," or "genetic code comparison."4. Biogeography and species distribution: Look for images of "marsupials in Australia and placental mammals," or "species distribution maps showing evolution and migration."5. Artificial selection examples: Search for images of "domesticated plants vs. wild ancestors" or "different dog breeds through selective breeding."By using these keywords, you should be able to find suitable images that can visually enhance your presentation and help your classmates better grasp the concepts of descent with modification and evolutionary processes.
Fermat’s theorem
Corollary ON Fermat’s theorem
Set of residues modulo 𝑚
Reduced set of residues modulo 𝑚
Theorems based on residue modulo m
Euler's theorem or Euler's generalization of Fermat's theorem
Fermat's theorem from Euler's theorem
Examples
The document defines and describes different types of sequences, including arithmetic, harmonic, and geometric sequences. It also discusses the convergence properties of sequences, defining convergent, divergent, and oscillating sequences. Some techniques for evaluating limits of convergent sequences are presented, including using continuous function representations and properties of polynomials.
Delay-Differential Equations. Tools for Epidemics ModellingIgnasi Gros
The document discusses delay-differential equations which are used to model epidemics. It provides examples of delay-differential equations and their solutions. Solutions to delay-differential equations involve an infinite number of terms due to the dependence on past values. The behavior of solutions depends on the characteristics of the individual terms, with some terms potentially growing and others decaying over time. Delay-differential equations are used to model more complex epidemic models that account for factors like incubation periods.
Dual Spaces of Generalized Cesaro Sequence Space and Related Matrix Mappinginventionjournals
In this paper we define the generalized Cesaro sequence spaces 푐푒푠(푝, 푞, 푠). We prove the space 푐푒푠(푝, 푞, 푠) is a complete paranorm space. In section-2 we determine its Kothe-Toeplitz dual. In section-3 we establish necessary and sufficient conditions for a matrix A to map 푐푒푠 푝, 푞, 푠 to 푙∞ and 푐푒푠(푝, 푞, 푠) to c, where 푙∞ is the space of all bounded sequences and c is the space of all convergent sequences. We also get some known and unknown results as remarks.
The EM algorithm is an iterative method to find maximum likelihood estimates of parameters in probabilistic models with latent variables. It has two steps: E-step, where expectations of the latent variables are computed based on current estimates, and M-step, where parameters are re-estimated to maximize the expected complete-data log-likelihood found in the E-step. As an example, the EM algorithm is applied to estimate the parameters of a Gaussian mixture model, where the latent variables indicate component membership of each data point.
Statement 1 is true, statement 2 is true and statement 2 is not correct explanation of statement 1.
A is an equivalence relation because it is reflexive (y - x is always an integer if x = y), symmetric (if y - x is an integer, then x - y is an integer) and transitive (if y - x and x - z are integers, then y - z is an integer).
B is also an equivalence relation because it is reflexive (x = 1x for rational 1), symmetric (if x = αy then y = (1/α)x) and transitive (if x = αy and y = βz then x = (αβ)z).
https://utilitasmathematica.com/index.php/Index
Our journal has commitment to inclusivity extends beyond the content of our publications. We are dedicated to creating an inclusive space in all aspects of our operations, from the selection of editorial board members to the review process.
1) The document provides examples and explanations of polynomial long division. It demonstrates how to perform long division with polynomial expressions by distributing terms and subtracting multiples of the denominator polynomial from the numerator polynomial.
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3) The document features biographies of mathematicians Paul Erdos and Terence Tao, including a photo of them working together when Tao was 10 years old.
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2. The dot product yields a scalar quantity and is used to calculate the angle between two vectors. The cross product yields a vector that is perpendicular to the plane of the two input vectors.
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This document provides a lesson summary for topics in algebra including:
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2) Solving quadratic equations through factoring and using the quadratic formula.
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The document includes examples and step-by-step solutions for applying these algebraic concepts.
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Lesson 20: Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle Part 1Kevin Johnson
This document contains a lesson plan on trigonometric functions for angles of any measure from a Bridge to Calculus workshop. It includes topics like right triangle trigonometry, angles in standard position, trig functions of common angles, the unit circle, and formulas like the rule of sines and cosines. Examples are provided to illustrate solving right triangles and converting between degree and radian measure.
Lesson 19: Exponential and Logarithmic FunctionsKevin Johnson
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This document provides an overview of rational exponents through a series of examples and explanations. It begins by introducing integer exponents and the rules for adding and subtracting them. It then extends these rules to rational exponents by defining rational powers in terms of nth roots. Examples are provided to illustrate how to simplify expressions using properties of exponents and the exponent-to-root rule for rational exponents. The key ideas are that rational exponents can be used when the nth root makes sense as a real number and that operations with rational exponents follow the same rules as integer exponents.
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Lesson 13: Midpoint and Distance FormulasKevin Johnson
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This document contains a lesson on right triangle trigonometry from Lehman College's Department of Mathematics. It includes definitions of the tangent, sine and cosine ratios, examples of solving right triangles using trigonometric ratios, and a derivation of the Pythagorean identity that relates sine and cosine functions. Key concepts covered are the definitions of trigonometric ratios in right triangles, using trigonometric functions to solve for unknown side lengths, and deriving trigonometric identities from the Pythagorean theorem.
Lesson 11: Functions and Function NotationKevin Johnson
This document discusses functions and function notation. It defines a function as a relation where each input has exactly one output. Functions are represented using functional notation f(x) where f is the name of the function and x is the input. The domain of a function is the set of all possible inputs, and the range is the set of all possible outputs. A relation is not a function if one input has more than one output. The natural domain of a function is the set of inputs that make the function definition valid.
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This document provides a lesson on linear relations and lines. It includes the following key points:
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Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...Sérgio Sacani
Context. The observation of several L-band emission sources in the S cluster has led to a rich discussion of their nature. However, a definitive answer to the classification of the dusty objects requires an explanation for the detection of compact Doppler-shifted Brγ emission. The ionized hydrogen in combination with the observation of mid-infrared L-band continuum emission suggests that most of these sources are embedded in a dusty envelope. These embedded sources are part of the S-cluster, and their relationship to the S-stars is still under debate. To date, the question of the origin of these two populations has been vague, although all explanations favor migration processes for the individual cluster members. Aims. This work revisits the S-cluster and its dusty members orbiting the supermassive black hole SgrA* on bound Keplerian orbits from a kinematic perspective. The aim is to explore the Keplerian parameters for patterns that might imply a nonrandom distribution of the sample. Additionally, various analytical aspects are considered to address the nature of the dusty sources. Methods. Based on the photometric analysis, we estimated the individual H−K and K−L colors for the source sample and compared the results to known cluster members. The classification revealed a noticeable contrast between the S-stars and the dusty sources. To fit the flux-density distribution, we utilized the radiative transfer code HYPERION and implemented a young stellar object Class I model. We obtained the position angle from the Keplerian fit results; additionally, we analyzed the distribution of the inclinations and the longitudes of the ascending node. Results. The colors of the dusty sources suggest a stellar nature consistent with the spectral energy distribution in the near and midinfrared domains. Furthermore, the evaporation timescales of dusty and gaseous clumps in the vicinity of SgrA* are much shorter ( 2yr) than the epochs covered by the observations (≈15yr). In addition to the strong evidence for the stellar classification of the D-sources, we also find a clear disk-like pattern following the arrangements of S-stars proposed in the literature. Furthermore, we find a global intrinsic inclination for all dusty sources of 60 ± 20◦, implying a common formation process. Conclusions. The pattern of the dusty sources manifested in the distribution of the position angles, inclinations, and longitudes of the ascending node strongly suggests two different scenarios: the main-sequence stars and the dusty stellar S-cluster sources share a common formation history or migrated with a similar formation channel in the vicinity of SgrA*. Alternatively, the gravitational influence of SgrA* in combination with a massive perturber, such as a putative intermediate mass black hole in the IRS 13 cluster, forces the dusty objects and S-stars to follow a particular orbital arrangement. Key words. stars: black holes– stars: formation– Galaxy: center– galaxies: star formation
Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...Sérgio Sacani
Wereport the study of a huge optical intraday flare on 2021 November 12 at 2 a.m. UT in the blazar OJ287. In the binary black hole model, it is associated with an impact of the secondary black hole on the accretion disk of the primary. Our multifrequency observing campaign was set up to search for such a signature of the impact based on a prediction made 8 yr earlier. The first I-band results of the flare have already been reported by Kishore et al. (2024). Here we combine these data with our monitoring in the R-band. There is a big change in the R–I spectral index by 1.0 ±0.1 between the normal background and the flare, suggesting a new component of radiation. The polarization variation during the rise of the flare suggests the same. The limits on the source size place it most reasonably in the jet of the secondary BH. We then ask why we have not seen this phenomenon before. We show that OJ287 was never before observed with sufficient sensitivity on the night when the flare should have happened according to the binary model. We also study the probability that this flare is just an oversized example of intraday variability using the Krakow data set of intense monitoring between 2015 and 2023. We find that the occurrence of a flare of this size and rapidity is unlikely. In machine-readable Tables 1 and 2, we give the full orbit-linked historical light curve of OJ287 as well as the dense monitoring sample of Krakow.
PPT on Alternate Wetting and Drying presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
Signatures of wave erosion in Titan’s coastsSérgio Sacani
The shorelines of Titan’s hydrocarbon seas trace flooded erosional landforms such as river valleys; however, it isunclear whether coastal erosion has subsequently altered these shorelines. Spacecraft observations and theo-retical models suggest that wind may cause waves to form on Titan’s seas, potentially driving coastal erosion,but the observational evidence of waves is indirect, and the processes affecting shoreline evolution on Titanremain unknown. No widely accepted framework exists for using shoreline morphology to quantitatively dis-cern coastal erosion mechanisms, even on Earth, where the dominant mechanisms are known. We combinelandscape evolution models with measurements of shoreline shape on Earth to characterize how differentcoastal erosion mechanisms affect shoreline morphology. Applying this framework to Titan, we find that theshorelines of Titan’s seas are most consistent with flooded landscapes that subsequently have been eroded bywaves, rather than a uniform erosional process or no coastal erosion, particularly if wave growth saturates atfetch lengths of tens of kilometers.
TOPIC OF DISCUSSION: CENTRIFUGATION SLIDESHARE.pptxshubhijain836
Centrifugation is a powerful technique used in laboratories to separate components of a heterogeneous mixture based on their density. This process utilizes centrifugal force to rapidly spin samples, causing denser particles to migrate outward more quickly than lighter ones. As a result, distinct layers form within the sample tube, allowing for easy isolation and purification of target substances.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
(June 12, 2024) Webinar: Development of PET theranostics targeting the molecu...Scintica Instrumentation
Targeting Hsp90 and its pathogen Orthologs with Tethered Inhibitors as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategy for cancer and infectious diseases with Dr. Timothy Haystead.
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
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−
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∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
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±
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,
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km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
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Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
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cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
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) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
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Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
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truly diverge from their low-
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counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths Forward
Section 11: Normal Subgroups
1. Abstract Algebra, Saracino
Second Edition
Section 11
Normal
Subgroups
"In mathematics the art of proposing
a question must be held of higher
value than solving it." – Georg Cantor -
2. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Galois and Abel
Niels Henrik Abel (1802-1829)
- Norwegian Mathematician
Évariste Galois (1811-1832)
- French Mathematician
3. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Definition of Normal Subgroups (1 of 1)
Definition: Let 𝐺 be a group. A subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺 is said
to be a normal subgroup of G if 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Note: For any group 𝐺, 𝑒 and 𝐺 are normal subgroups
since 𝑎 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑎 for any a ∈ 𝐺, and 𝑎𝐺 = 𝐺𝑎 = 𝐺.
It follows directly from the definition that every subgroup
of an abelian group is normal. However, the converse
of the last statement is not true. We can show that every
subgroup of the group of unit quaternions 𝒬8 is normal,
but 𝒬8 itself is nonabelian. Note also that if 𝐻 is a
normal subgroup of a group 𝐺, then it does not always
mean that 𝑎ℎ = ℎ𝑎 for every ℎ ∈ 𝐻 and every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
This will be demonstrated in the following example.
5. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Examples of Normal Subgroups (2 of 3)
Example 1 (cont’d). Similarly, we can show that
1 3 𝐻 = 𝐻 1 3 . It follows that 𝐻 is a normal subgroup
of 𝑆3. But for 1 2 3 ∈ 𝐺 and 2 3 ∈ 𝐺, we have:
Hence, 2 3 1 2 3 ≠ 1 2 3 2 3 . Now, consider the
subgroup 𝐾 = 𝑒, (1 2) of 𝐺 = 𝑆3. For this subgroup:
Hence, 1 3 𝐻 ≠ 𝐻(1 3), and so 𝐾 = 𝑒, (1 2) is not a
normal subgroup of 𝐺 = 𝑆3
2 3 1 2 3 = (1 3)
1 2 3 2 3 = (1 2)
1 3 𝐻 = 1 3 𝑒, (1 3)(1 2) = 1 3 , (1 2 3)
𝐻 1 3 = 𝑒 1 3 , (1 2) 1 3 = 1 3 , (1 3 2)
6. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Examples of Normal Subgroups (3 of 3)
Example 2. Recall the group 𝐺𝐿 𝑛, ℝ of 𝑛 × 𝑛 real
matrices with nonzero determinant. The set S𝐿 𝑛, ℝ of
matrices in 𝐺𝐿 𝑛, ℝ with determinant 1 is a subgroup of
𝐺𝐿 𝑛, ℝ . First, S𝐿 𝑛, ℝ is a nonempty subset of
𝐺𝐿 𝑛, ℝ , because 𝐼 ∈ S𝐿 𝑛, ℝ . Next, if A, B ∈ 𝑆𝐿 𝑛, ℝ
then det 𝐴𝐵 = det 𝐴 det 𝐵 = 1 and
det 𝐴−1
= det 𝐴 −1
= 1. So 𝑆𝐿 𝑛, ℝ is closed under
both multiplication and inverses. In addition
since if A ∈ 𝑆𝐿 𝑛, ℝ and 𝐵 ∈ 𝐺𝐿 𝑛, ℝ then
Above we used the fact that det 𝐴𝐵 = det 𝐴 det 𝐵
and det 𝐴−1
= det 𝐴 −1
from linear algebra.
S𝐿 𝑛, ℝ ⊴ 𝐺𝐿 𝑛, ℝ
det 𝐵𝐴𝐵−1
= det 𝐵 det 𝐴 det 𝐵−1
= 1
7. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (1 of 8)
Theorem 1. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a subgroup
of 𝐺. The following conditions are equivalent:
a) 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺
b) 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⊆ 𝐻 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
c) 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Proof. 𝑎) ⇒ 𝑏) Let 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. Since 𝐻 is a normal subgroup
of 𝐺, then 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔. Hence for any ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑔ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝑔, so
𝑔ℎ = ℎ′
𝑔 for some ℎ′
∈ 𝐻. Consequently, we have
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
= ℎ′
𝑔𝑔−1
= ℎ′
∈ 𝐻, and 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⊆ 𝐻.
𝑏) ⇒ 𝑐) Let ℎ ∈ 𝐻, then 𝑔−1
ℎ 𝑔−1 −1
= 𝑔−1
ℎ𝑔 ∈ 𝐻.
8. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (2 of 8)
Theorem 1 (cont’d). 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑐) Let ℎ ∈ 𝐻, then
𝑔−1
ℎ 𝑔−1 −1
= 𝑔−1
ℎ𝑔 ∈ 𝐻. This means that we have
𝑔 𝑔−1
ℎ𝑔 𝑔−1
∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
or ℎ ∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
. Hence, it follows
that 𝐻 ⊆ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
, and 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
= 𝐻.
𝑐) ⇒ 𝑎) Since 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
= 𝐻 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔
for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. Hence, 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺. ∎
Theorem 11.2. Let 𝐺 be a group, then any subgroup of
the center 𝑍(𝐺) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.
Proof. Let 𝐻 be any subgroup of 𝑍(𝐺). Let ℎ ∈ 𝐻 and let
𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. Since we have 𝐻 ⊆ 𝑍(𝐺) then 𝑔ℎ = ℎ𝑔 and
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
= ℎ𝑔𝑔−1
= ℎ ∈ 𝐻. It follows that 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⊆ 𝐻 and
𝐻 is normal in 𝐺, by Theorem 1. ∎
9. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (3 of 8)
Example 2. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a subgroup
of 𝐺. If for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 implies 𝑏𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, show that
𝐻 is normal in 𝐺.
Solution. Let ℎ ∈ 𝐻 be arbitrary. Then for any 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Since 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 implies 𝑏𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 for any 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, It follows
that 𝑔ℎ 𝑔−1
= 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
∈ 𝐻 for all ℎ ∈ 𝐻 and for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
This means that 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⊆ 𝐻 and 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺, by
Theorem 1. ∎
ℎ = 𝑒ℎ = 𝑔−1
𝑔 ℎ = 𝑔−1
𝑔ℎ ∈ 𝐻
10. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (4 of 8)
Corollary 1. If 𝐺 is abelian then every subgroup of 𝐺 is
normal.
Proof. If 𝐺 is abelian then 𝑍 𝐺 = 𝐺 and every subgroup
of 𝐺 is normal by Theorem 11.3. ∎
Theorem 11.3. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a
subgroup of 𝐺 such that 𝐺: 𝐻 = 2, then 𝐻 is normal in
𝐺. (index 2 subgroups are normal).
Proof. Since there are exactly two distinct right cosets
of 𝐻 in 𝐺, one of them is 𝐻 and the other must be 𝐺 − 𝐻
(set difference) since right cosets of 𝐻 partition 𝐺.
Likewise, the distinct left cosets must be 𝐻 and 𝐺 − 𝐻.
11. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (5 of 8)
Proof (cont’d). Thus, the left cosets are the right
cosets, and for any 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, we have 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔. ∎
Example 3. We know that every subgroup of an abelian
group is normal. Is the converse true? That is, if every
subgroup of a group is normal, is the group abelian?
Solution. Consider the group of unit quaternions,
where 𝒬8 = 1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑗, −𝑗, 𝑘, −𝑘 under multiplication,
with 𝑖2
= 𝑗2
= 𝑘2
= 𝑖𝑗𝑘 = −1. The subgroups of 𝒬8 are:
1 , −1 , 𝑖 , 𝑗 , 𝑘 , and 𝒬8. It follows that 𝒬8 is a
normal subgroup of itself. The subgroups 𝑖 , 𝑗 , and
𝑘 all have order 4, so they are index 2 subgroups and
are therefore normal by Theorem 11.3.
12. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (6 of 8)
Solution (cont’d). The subgroups 1 and −1 are both
contained in the center 𝑍 𝒬 and are therefore normal
by Theorem 11.2. Thus, every subgroup of 𝒬8 is normal,
but 𝒬8 itself is nonabelian.
Example 4. We have 𝑆 𝑛 = 𝑛! and 𝐴 𝑛 = 𝑛!/2 so the
index 𝑆 𝑛: 𝐴 𝑛 = 2 and 𝐴 𝑛 is a normal subgroup of 𝑆 𝑛for
all 𝑛 by Theorem 11.3.
Theorem 11.4. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a
subgroup of 𝐺. Suppose 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
is a
subgroup of 𝐺 with the same number of elements as 𝐻.
Proof. Let 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
⊆ 𝐺. Now, 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
≠ ∅
13. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (7 of 8)
Proof (cont’d). Now, 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
≠ ∅ since we have
𝑔𝑒𝑔−1
= 𝑔𝑔−1
= 𝑒 ∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
. We will now show that
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
is closed under multiplication. Let 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1
and
𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1
be elements of 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
for some ℎ1, ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻. Then
since ℎ1ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻 because 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺. For
closure under inverses, let 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
for some
ℎ ∈ 𝐻. Then
since ℎ−1
∈ 𝐺 because 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺. It follows
that 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1 𝑔 ℎ1 𝑔−1
= 𝑔ℎ1ℎ2 𝑔−1
∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 −1
= 𝑔−1 −1
ℎ−1
𝑔−1
= 𝑔ℎ−1
𝑔−1
∈ 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
14. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Normal Subgroups (8 of 8)
Proof (cont’d). To prove that |𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
| = |𝐻| we will
construct a one-to-one and onto function from 𝐻 to
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
. Let 𝑓: 𝐻 → 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
be given by 𝑓 ℎ = 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
for
all ℎ ∈ 𝐻. To show that 𝑓 is one-to-one, let ℎ1, ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻
and let 𝑓 ℎ1 = 𝑓(ℎ2) then 𝑔ℎ1 𝑔−1
= 𝑔ℎ2 𝑔−1
. By left
and right cancellation, ℎ1 = ℎ2 and 𝑓 is one-to-one. To
show that 𝑓 is onto 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
, let 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
be an arbitrary
element of 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
, then 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1
= 𝑓(ℎ) for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻. It
follows that 𝑓 is onto 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
, and |𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
| = |𝐻| ∎
Corollary 11.5. If 𝐺 is a group and 𝐻 a subgroup of 𝐺
and no other subgroup has the same number of
elements as 𝐻, then 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺.
15. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Quotient (Factor) Groups (1 of 5)
Proof . For any 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
is a subgroup of 𝐺 with
the same number of elements as 𝐻 . By the hypothesis,
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
= 𝐻, so by Theorem 1, 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺. ∎
Notation: If 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of a group 𝐺, we
write:
Notation: If 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺, then 𝐺/𝐻 is defined as the set of all
left (= right) cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺. That is 𝐺/𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻 | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Theorem 11.6. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a normal
subgroup of 𝐺, then 𝐺/𝐻 is a group under the operation
∗ defined below:
For all 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻 ∈ 𝐺/𝐻, 𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = (𝑎𝑏)𝐻
𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺
16. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Quotient (Factor) Groups (2 of 5)
Proof. We want to show that the operation ∗ is a well-
defined binary operation on the set 𝐺/𝐻. That is, if we
have 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑎1 𝐻 and 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑏1 𝐻, then
Now 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑎1 𝐻 means 𝑎1 𝑎−1
∈ 𝐻 and 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑏1 𝐻 means
𝑏1 𝑏−1
∈ 𝐻. It follows that we want:
That is, we want 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎𝑏 −1
∈ 𝐻. But
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑎1 𝐻 ∗ 𝑏1 𝐻
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑎𝑏 𝐻 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝐻 = 𝑎1 𝐻 ∗ 𝑏1 𝐻
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎𝑏 −1
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑏−1
𝑎−1
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑏−1
𝑎1
−1
𝑎1 𝑎−1
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑏−1
𝑎1
−1
𝑎1 𝑎−1
17. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Quotient (Factor) Groups (3 of 5)
Proof (cont’d). We have
Since 𝑎1 𝑎−1
∈ 𝐻 and 𝑏1 𝑏−1
∈ 𝐻, then 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎𝑏 −1
is an
element of 𝐻, if and only if 𝑎1 𝐻𝑎1
−1
is a subset of 𝐻.
That is, if 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺.
We will now check if ∗ is associative. Let 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻, 𝑐𝐻 be
elements of 𝐻/𝐺, then
Hence, ∗ is an associative binary operation on 𝐺/𝐻.
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎𝑏 −1
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑏−1
𝑎−1
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑏−1
𝑎1
−1
𝑎1 𝑎−1
= 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑏−1 𝑎1
−1
𝑎1 𝑎−1
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 ∗ 𝑐𝐻 = 𝑎𝑏 𝐻 ∗ 𝑐𝐻 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝐻 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝐻
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 ∗ 𝑐𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝑐 𝐻 = 𝑎 𝑏𝑐 𝐻 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝐻
18. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Quotient (Factor) Groups (4 of 5)
Proof (cont’d). We will now check if ∗ has an identity
element. Let 𝑎𝐻 be an element of 𝐻/𝐺, then
So 𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻 is the identity element in 𝐺/𝐻 under ∗. For
inverses, let 𝑎𝐻 ∈ 𝐺/𝐻, then
It follows that 𝐺/𝐻 is closed under inverses and 𝐺/𝐻 is
a group under the binary operation ∗. ∎
Definition: Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a normal
subgroup of 𝐺. Then the group 𝐺/𝐻 of all left cosets of
𝐻 in 𝐺 under the binary operation 𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = (𝑎𝑏)𝐻 is
called the quotient group or factor group of 𝐺 by 𝐻.
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑒𝐻 = 𝑎𝑒 𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑒𝑎 𝐻 = 𝑒𝐻 ∗ 𝑎𝐻
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑎−1
𝐻 = 𝑎𝑎−1
𝐻 = 𝑒𝐻 = 𝑎−1
𝑎 𝐻 = 𝑎−1
𝐻 ∗ 𝑎𝐻
19. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Quotient (Factor) Groups (5 of 5)
Definition: Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a normal
subgroup of 𝐺. Then the group 𝐺/𝐻 of all left cosets of
𝐻 in 𝐺 under the binary operation 𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = (𝑎𝑏)𝐻 is
called the quotient group or factor group of 𝐺 by 𝐻.
We defined [𝐺: 𝐻] (the index of 𝐻 and 𝐺) as the number
of distinct left (or right) cosets. Since 𝐺/𝐻 is the set of
all left (or right) cosets of a normal subgroup 𝐺, then:
If the group 𝐺 is finite, then by Lagrange’s Theorem, we
have 𝐺: 𝐻 =
|𝐺|
|𝐻|
. It follows that for finite groups 𝐺:
|𝐺/𝐻| = [𝐺: 𝐻]
|𝐺/𝐻| =
|𝐺|
|𝐻|
20. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Examples of Quotient Groups (1 of 3)
Example 5. Let 𝐺 = ℤ6 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 under addition
modulo 6. Then 𝐺 is cyclic, hence abelian. From
Corollary 1, we know that every subgroup of 𝐺 is
normal. Let 𝐻 = 0, 3 be a subgroup of 𝐺. Then 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺,
and the distinct left (right) cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 are:
𝐻 = 0 + 𝐻 = 0, 3 = 3 + 𝐻, 1 + 𝐻 = 1, 4 = 4 + 𝐻, and
2 + 𝐻 = 2, 5 = 5 + 𝐻. We see that |𝐺/𝐻| = 3, and
|𝐺| = 6 with |𝐻| = 2, so 𝐺 /|𝐻| = 6/2 = 3.
1 + 𝐻 and 2 + 𝐻 are inverses of each other. 1 + 𝐻 and
2 + 𝐻 both have order 3. This is actually the group ℤ3.
𝐺/𝐻 = 𝐻, 1 + 𝐻, 2 + 𝐻
1 + 𝐻 + 2 + 𝐻 = 3 + 𝐻 = 𝐻
1 + 𝐻 + 1 + 𝐻 + (1 + 𝐻 = 3 + 𝐻 = 𝐻
21. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Examples of Quotient Groups (2 of 3)
Example 6. In Example 1, we looked at 𝐺 = 𝑆3
We showed that the subgroup 𝐻 = 𝑒, 1 2 3 , (1 3 2) is
normal in 𝐺. Let us look at the set of distinct cosets of 𝐻
in 𝐺:
Here:
We see that |𝐺/𝐻| = 2, and |𝐺| = 6 with |𝐻| = 3, so
𝐺 /|𝐻| = 6/3 = 2. Now,
So 1 2 𝐻 is its own inverse. This is the group ℤ2.
𝐺/𝐻 = 𝐻, (1 2)𝐻
𝐺 = 𝑆3 = 𝑒, 1 2 , 1 3 , 2 3 , (1 2 3), (1 3 2)
1 2 𝐻 = 1 2 , 2 3 , (1 3) = 2 3 𝐻 = 1 3 𝐻
𝐻 = 𝑒𝐻 = 𝑒, 1 2 3 , (1 3 2) = 1 2 3 𝐻 = 1 3 2 𝐻
1 2 𝐻 ⋅ 1 2 𝐻 = 1 2 1 2 𝐻 = 𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻
22. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Examples of Quotient Groups (1 of 3)
Example 7. Consider the group ℤ under addition and
consider the subgroup 3ℤ = … , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, … . Since
ℤ is abelian, we know from Corollary 1 that every
subgroup of ℤ is normal. The left cosets of 3ℤ in ℤ are:
The distinct left cosets are: 3ℤ, 1 + 3ℤ and 2 + 3ℤ. Then
0 + 3ℤ = … , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, … = 3ℤ
1 + 3ℤ = … , −8, −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, 10, …
2 + 3ℤ = … , −7, −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, 11, …
3 + 3ℤ = … , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, … = 3ℤ
4 + 3ℤ = … , −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, … = 1 + 3ℤ
−1 + 3ℤ = … , −10, −7, −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, … = 2 + 3ℤ
−2 + 3ℤ = … , −11, −8, −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, … = 1 + 3ℤ
ℤ/3ℤ = 3ℤ, 1 + 3ℤ, 2 + 3ℤ
23. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (1 of 10)
Example 8. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 be a normal
subgroup of 𝐺. Show that if 𝐺 is abelian then the
quotient group 𝐺/𝐻 is also abelian.
Solution. Let 𝑎𝐻 and 𝑏𝐻 be arbitrary elements of 𝐺/𝐻
for some 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. Then
But 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 since 𝐺 is abelian. Hence,
Since 𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻 ∗ 𝑎𝐻 for all 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻 in 𝐺/𝐻 it follows
that 𝐺/𝐻 is abelian. ∎
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = (𝑎𝑏)𝐻
𝑎𝐻 ∗ 𝑏𝐻 = 𝑎𝑏 𝐻 = 𝑏𝑎 𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻 ∗ 𝑎𝐻
24. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (2 of 10)
Example 9. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 and 𝐾 be
subgroups of 𝐺 with 𝐻 normal in 𝐺. Show that 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a
normal subgroup of 𝐾.
Solution. We know that 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺. Since
𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is contained in both 𝐻 and 𝐾 then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a
subgroup of 𝐻 and 𝐾, respectively. In order show that
𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⊴ 𝐾, it is sufficient to show that for all 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾:
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾, then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾.Hence, 𝑘𝑎𝑘−1
∈ 𝐾
for all 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾. We want to show that 𝑘𝑎𝑘−1
∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.
Since 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺, then 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1
∈ 𝐻 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 and all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
But 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐺 so 𝑘 ∈ 𝐺. It follows that 𝑘𝑎𝑘−1 ∈ 𝐻.
𝑘 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 𝑘−1
⊆ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾
25. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (3 of 10)
Solution (cont’d). Now, 𝑘𝑎𝑘−1
∈ 𝐾 and 𝑘𝑎𝑘−1
∈ 𝐻 for
all 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾. It follows that 𝑘𝑎𝑘−1
∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾, and we have
𝑘 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 𝑘−1
⊆ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 for all 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾, but this implies that
𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is normal in 𝐾 by Theorem 1.
Example 10. Let 𝐺 be an abelian group of odd order 𝑛
and let 𝐺 = 𝑔1, 𝑔2, 𝑔3, … , 𝑔 𝑛 = 𝑒 . Show that the product
Solution. Since 𝐺 is of odd order, by Lagrange’s
Theorem 𝐺 can have no element of order 2 (the order of
an element must divide the order of the group). Thus,
each nonidentity element is distinct from its respective
inverse. Since 𝐺 is abelian, then the above product is a
product of (𝑛 − 1)/2 copies of the identity. ∎
𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑔3 ⋯ 𝑔 𝑛 = 𝑒
26. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (4 of 10)
Theorem 3. Let 𝐺 be a group. Show that if 𝐺/𝑍(𝐺) is
cyclic, then 𝐺 is abelian.
Proof: Let 𝑍 𝐺 = 𝑍. We know that 𝑍 ⊴ 𝐺, so 𝐺/𝑍 is a
group under the operation 𝑎𝑍 ∗ 𝑏𝑍 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑍 for all
elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. Since 𝐺/𝑍 is cyclic, then 𝐺/𝑍 = ⟨𝑔𝑍⟩
for some 𝑔𝑍 ∈ 𝐺/𝑍. Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝑎𝑍, 𝑏𝑍 ∈ 𝐺/𝑍.
Since 𝐺/𝑍 is cyclic then 𝑎𝑍 = 𝑔𝑍 𝑛
= 𝑔 𝑛
𝑍 and, also
𝑏𝑍 = 𝑔𝑍 𝑚
= 𝑔 𝑚
𝑍 for some 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℤ. It follows that we
have 𝑎 ∈ 𝑔 𝑛
𝑍 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝑔 𝑚
𝑍. Therefore, 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑛
𝑧1 and
𝑏 = 𝑔 𝑚 𝑧2 for some 𝑧1, 𝑧2 ∈ 𝑍. Now,
𝑎𝑏 = (𝑔 𝑛
𝑧1) 𝑔 𝑚
𝑧2 = 𝑔 𝑛
𝑔 𝑚
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑔 𝑛+𝑚
𝑧1 𝑧2
= 𝑔 𝑚+𝑛 𝑧2 𝑧1 = 𝑔 𝑚 𝑔 𝑛 𝑧2 𝑧1 = (𝑔 𝑚 𝑧2)(𝑔 𝑛 𝑧1) = 𝑏𝑎
27. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (5 of 10)
Example 11. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺. Suppose
𝐻 = 2. Show that 𝐻 ⊆ 𝑍 𝐺 .
Solution: Since 𝐻 = 2, then 𝐻 = 𝑒, 𝑎 for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺,
(𝑎 ≠ 𝑒). Since 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺, then 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
= 𝐻 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, but
So 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1
= 𝑎 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. Therefore 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑎𝑔 for all
𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. It follows that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍 𝐺 . Since 𝑒 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺), then
Theorem 4. Let 𝐺 be a finite group and let 𝐻 and 𝐾 be
subgroups of 𝐺.
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1
= 𝑔𝑒𝑔−1
, 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1
= 𝑒, 𝑔𝑎𝑔−1
= 𝑒, 𝑎 = 𝐻
𝐻 = 𝑒, 𝑎 ⊆ 𝑍(𝐺)
28. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (6 of 10)
Theorem 4. Let 𝐺 be a finite group and let 𝐻 and 𝐾 be
subgroups of 𝐺.
a) If |𝐻| and |𝐾| are relatively prime (gcd 𝐻 , |𝐾| = 1),
then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝑒 .
b) If 𝐻 and 𝐾 are two distinct subgroups, both of prime
order 𝑝, then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝑒 .
Proof (a). Now, 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺 (cf. Homework
5, #1). Since 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is contained in both 𝐻 and 𝐾, then
𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is subgroup of both 𝐻 and 𝐾. By Lagrange’s
Theorem, |𝐻 ∩ 𝐾| is a divisor of both 𝐻| and |𝐾|, but
gcd 𝐻 , |𝐾| = 1, so 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 1 and 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝑒 .
29. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (7 of 10)
Proof (b). Now, 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐻, which has
prime order. By Lagrange’s Theorem, 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 1 or
𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝐻 . Since 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻, then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝑒 or
𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝐻. Since 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ⊆ 𝐾, if 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝐻, then 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾.
But 𝐻 = 𝐾 and 𝐻 ≠ 𝐾, so there is some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 with
𝑎 ∉ 𝐾. Therefore 𝐻 cannot be a subset of 𝐾. It follows
then that 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝑒 . ∎
Theorem 5. Let 𝐺 be a group of order 𝑝𝑞 for distinct
primes 𝑝 and 𝑞 (𝑝 < 𝑞). Then all proper subgroups of 𝐺
are cyclic and 𝐺 has an element of order 𝑝.
Proof. By Lagrange’s Theorem, the order of all
subgroups of 𝐺 is a divisor of 𝐺 = 𝑝𝑞. The only proper
30. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (8 of 10)
Proof (cont’d). The only proper divisors of 𝑝𝑞 are 1, 𝑝,
and 𝑞. So, if 𝐻 is a proper subgroup of 𝐺, then we have
𝐻 = 1, 𝑝, or 𝑞. If 𝐻 = 1, then 𝐻 = 𝑒 = ⟨𝑒⟩ is cyclic.
Otherwise, if 𝐻 = 𝑝, or 𝑞 (primes) then 𝐻 is cyclic.
Let 𝑚 be the maximum order of all elements of 𝐺. Then,
by Lagrange’s Theorem 𝑚 = 1, 𝑝, 𝑞, or 𝑝𝑞. If 𝑚 = 𝑝𝑞,
then 𝐺 has an element 𝑎 of order 𝑝𝑞. Thus, 𝐺 = ⟨𝑎⟩ is
cyclic. Since 𝑎 𝑝𝑞
= 𝑒, then 𝑎 𝑞 𝑝
= 𝑒 and 𝑎 𝑞
is an
element of order 𝑝 in 𝐺. If 𝑚 = 𝑝, then 𝐺 has an element
of order 𝑝. However, if 𝑚 = 𝑞 then there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 of
order 𝑞. Consider the cyclic subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺 generated
by 𝑏. 𝐻 = 𝑒, 𝑏, 𝑏2
, 𝑏3
, … , 𝑏 𝑞−1
. Every nonidentity
element of 𝐻 has order 𝑞.
31. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (9 of 10)
Proof (cont’d). From Theorem 4(b), if 𝐾 is another
subgroup of 𝐺 of order 𝑞, then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 = 𝑒 . It follows
that 𝐻 has 𝑞 − 1 elements of order 𝑞 that are not in 𝐾,
and vice versa. Since 𝐺 has one element 𝑒 of order 1,
Then 𝐺 can have at most 𝑝𝑞 − 1 elements of order 𝑞. It
follows that 𝐺 can have at most 𝑝 distinct subgroups of
order 𝑞.
Thus, the maximum number of elements of order 𝑞 in 𝐺
is 𝑝 𝑞 − 1 . Since if 𝐺 had 𝑝 + 1 distinct subgroups of
order 𝑞, it would have 𝑝 + 1 𝑞 − 1 elements of order
𝑞. Now, 𝑝 + 1 𝑞 − 1 = 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 − 𝑝 − 1 = 𝑝𝑞 − 1 + (𝑞 −
𝑝). But 𝑞 > 𝑝, so 𝑞 − 𝑝 > 0 and the number of elements
of order 𝑞 would exceed 𝑝𝑞 − 1.
32. Lehman College, Department of Mathematics
Corollaries (10 of 10)
Proof (cont’d). But the total number of nonidentity
elements in 𝐺 is 𝑝𝑞 − 1. We know that 𝐺 has at most
𝑝 𝑞 − 1 = 𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝 elements of order 𝑞. So, the
difference:
Since the smallest prime is 2. It follows that 𝐺 has at
least one element of order 𝑝.
𝑝𝑞 − 1 − 𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝 = 𝑝 − 1 ≥ 1