This document provides an overview of precipitation titration methods. It discusses Mohr's method, Volhard's method, and Fajan's method. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator and detects the endpoint when a brick red precipitate of silver chromate forms. Volhard's method titrates excess silver ions with thiocyanate using ferric ion as an indicator. Fajan's method employs adsorption indicators that change color when adsorbed onto the precipitate surface at the endpoint. The document explains the principles, procedures, applications and limitations of each precipitation titration method.
Neutralization curves in acid base analytical titrations, indicators.nehla313
Neutralization curves in acid base analytical titrations, indicators,
strong acid strong base
weak acid strong bse
strong acid weak base
weak acid and weak base
This document discusses precipitation titration methods. It describes Mohr's method, Volhard's method and Fajan's method. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator. Volhard's method indirectly titrates excess silver ions with thiocyanate using ferric ammonium sulfate as an indicator. Fajan's method uses adsorption indicators like fluorescein that change color upon adsorption to the precipitate formed at the endpoint. Key factors that influence precipitation titrations like solubility products, common ion effect and temperature are also discussed.
This document discusses non-aqueous titrations, including the types of solvents used, endpoint detection methods, and applications. It covers protogenic solvents like acetic acid that can act as both acids and bases, protophilic solvents with high proton affinity, and aprotic solvents like benzene that are inert. Common indicators and titrants used include crystal violet, perchloric acid, and sodium acetate. The document provides examples of using non-aqueous titrations to assay substances like sodium acetate and norfloxacin tablets that are insoluble or reactive in water.
The document discusses the benefits of meditation for reducing stress and anxiety. Regular meditation practice can help calm the mind and body by lowering heart rate and blood pressure. Studies have shown that meditating for just 10-20 minutes per day can have significant positive impacts on both mental and physical health over time.
The document discusses non-aqueous titration. It describes how non-aqueous titration is used to titrate weakly acidic or basic substances using non-aqueous solvents instead of water to obtain sharp endpoints. It discusses solvent selection and properties like dissociation ability, dielectric constant, and acid/base character. It also describes methods for determining the endpoint, including indicator methods and potentiometry. An example procedure is given for the estimation of sodium benzoate by titrating it with hydrochloric acid in a non-aqueous solvent system.
1. Indicators are substances that change color in response to chemical reactions, especially titrations, allowing the determination of an endpoint.
2. There are three types of indicators: self-indicators that change color on their own, internal indicators that participate in the reaction, and external indicators that do not participate but still change color at the endpoint.
3. Indicator color changes are explained by two theories: Ostwald's theory of ionization states that indicators are weak acids or bases whose color depends on whether they are ionized or not. The quinonoid theory proposes that indicators exist in colored or colorless tautomeric forms that interchange depending on pH.
Emetics are drugs that induce vomiting by causing the contents of the stomach to be expelled through the mouth. They are important for treating poisoning cases. Copper sulfate is a common emetic that is blue crystalline powder. It can be assayed through an oxidation-reduction titration with iodine and sodium thiosulfate. Sodium potassium tartrate, also known as Rochelle salt, is a crystalline powder that is soluble in water. It has uses as a laxative, diuretic, and food additive.
Neutralization curves in acid base analytical titrations, indicators.nehla313
Neutralization curves in acid base analytical titrations, indicators,
strong acid strong base
weak acid strong bse
strong acid weak base
weak acid and weak base
This document discusses precipitation titration methods. It describes Mohr's method, Volhard's method and Fajan's method. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator. Volhard's method indirectly titrates excess silver ions with thiocyanate using ferric ammonium sulfate as an indicator. Fajan's method uses adsorption indicators like fluorescein that change color upon adsorption to the precipitate formed at the endpoint. Key factors that influence precipitation titrations like solubility products, common ion effect and temperature are also discussed.
This document discusses non-aqueous titrations, including the types of solvents used, endpoint detection methods, and applications. It covers protogenic solvents like acetic acid that can act as both acids and bases, protophilic solvents with high proton affinity, and aprotic solvents like benzene that are inert. Common indicators and titrants used include crystal violet, perchloric acid, and sodium acetate. The document provides examples of using non-aqueous titrations to assay substances like sodium acetate and norfloxacin tablets that are insoluble or reactive in water.
The document discusses the benefits of meditation for reducing stress and anxiety. Regular meditation practice can help calm the mind and body by lowering heart rate and blood pressure. Studies have shown that meditating for just 10-20 minutes per day can have significant positive impacts on both mental and physical health over time.
The document discusses non-aqueous titration. It describes how non-aqueous titration is used to titrate weakly acidic or basic substances using non-aqueous solvents instead of water to obtain sharp endpoints. It discusses solvent selection and properties like dissociation ability, dielectric constant, and acid/base character. It also describes methods for determining the endpoint, including indicator methods and potentiometry. An example procedure is given for the estimation of sodium benzoate by titrating it with hydrochloric acid in a non-aqueous solvent system.
1. Indicators are substances that change color in response to chemical reactions, especially titrations, allowing the determination of an endpoint.
2. There are three types of indicators: self-indicators that change color on their own, internal indicators that participate in the reaction, and external indicators that do not participate but still change color at the endpoint.
3. Indicator color changes are explained by two theories: Ostwald's theory of ionization states that indicators are weak acids or bases whose color depends on whether they are ionized or not. The quinonoid theory proposes that indicators exist in colored or colorless tautomeric forms that interchange depending on pH.
Emetics are drugs that induce vomiting by causing the contents of the stomach to be expelled through the mouth. They are important for treating poisoning cases. Copper sulfate is a common emetic that is blue crystalline powder. It can be assayed through an oxidation-reduction titration with iodine and sodium thiosulfate. Sodium potassium tartrate, also known as Rochelle salt, is a crystalline powder that is soluble in water. It has uses as a laxative, diuretic, and food additive.
The document provides information about diazotization titrations. It discusses the principle, theory, procedure, end point detection, factors affecting, applications, and advantages/disadvantages of diazotization titrations. The key points are:
- Diazotization titrations involve the reaction of a primary aromatic amine with sodium nitrite in acidic medium to form a diazonium salt, which is then titrated.
- The end point is detected using an external indicator like starch iodide paper or electrochemically.
- Factors like acid concentration, temperature, and reaction time must be controlled.
- It can be used to determine drugs and compounds containing
This document discusses non-aqueous titration including reasons for using non-aqueous solvents, common solvent types, and examples of acidimetry and alkalimetry titrations. Protogenic, protophilic, and aprotic solvents are described. Acidimetry involves titrating weak bases like ephedrine HCl with perchloric acid in glacial acetic acid. Alkalimetry involves titrating weak acids like sodium benzoate with sodium methoxide in DMF. The document provides procedures for standardizing a perchloric acid solution and estimating the percentage of ephedrine HCl and sodium benzoate in samples.
This document describes the limit test for lead using diphenylthiocarbazone (dithizone) which forms a violet colored lead-dithizonate complex in an alkaline medium. The method separates any lead impurity in a substance by extracting an alkaline solution with dithizone chloroform solution. The intensity of the violet color complex is then compared to a standard lead solution to determine the amount of lead present.
This document discusses acid-base theories and titration. It covers:
1) Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis acid-base theories.
2) Types of acids and bases as strong or weak.
3) The law of mass action and dissociation constants.
4) Neutralization curves for different types of acid-base titrations and the pH at equivalence points.
5) Choice of indicators for different titrations and mixed indicators.
Neutralization curves show the pH change that occurs when an acid and base are mixed. They are useful for determining the amount of acid or base needed to neutralize a solution. A neutralization curve plots the volume of base added on the x-axis against the pH of the solution on the y-axis. It typically shows a sharp increase in pH at the equivalence point where just enough base has been added to neutralize all the acid present.
This document discusses various inorganic pharmaceutical agents including expectorants, terpin hydrate, ammonium chloride, potassium iodide, and emetics such as antimony potassium tartrate. Expectorants are drugs that stimulate respiratory tract secretions to loosen mucus. Terpin hydrate, ammonium chloride, and potassium iodide are expectorants. Emetics induce vomiting and were formerly used but are limited now due to their depression effects. Antimony potassium tartrate is an emetic with a slow onset of vomiting followed by marked depression.
This document discusses primary and secondary standards used in pharmaceutical analysis. Primary standards are highly pure substances (99.95-100.05%) that are stable over temperature and used to standardize volumetric reagents. They must be easy to obtain and purify, soluble, and react stoichiometrically. Examples include potassium hydrogen phthalate and sodium carbonate. Secondary standards are solutions of known concentration determined by titrating against a primary standard. They have less purity and stability than primary standards and are used when primary standards are not practical, such as sodium hydroxide and potassium permanganate.
Potentiometric - Pharmaceutical Analysis (101T)RAHUL PAL
Potentiometric methods of analysis measure the potential of electrochemical cells under conditions of zero current. The potential difference between a sensing electrode and a reference electrode is measured. A salt bridge containing an inert electrolyte connects the two half-cells and allows ionic movement to complete the electrical circuit. Common reference electrodes include the standard hydrogen electrode, saturated calomel electrode, and silver-silver chloride electrode. Potentiometry is used for applications such as determining electrode potentials, measuring pH, and analyzing samples in clinical chemistry, environmental chemistry, agriculture, and food processing.
This document describes the limit test for arsenic using the Gutzeit method. Arsenic in a sample is converted to arsine gas, which reacts with mercuric chloride paper to produce a stain that is compared to a standard stain. The test uses an apparatus with two glass tubes, where the sample is placed below zinc and hydrochloric acid to produce arsine gas, which passes through mercuric chloride paper to produce a stain after 40 minutes. By comparing the intensity of this test stain to the standard stain produced in the same way from a solution of known arsenic concentration, the document determines if the sample passes or fails the limit test for arsenic.
This document describes procedures for estimating the purity of magnesium sulfate and calcium gluconate. It first details the preparation of a 0.05 M disodium edetate solution and its standardization. For magnesium sulfate estimation, 0.3 g of the compound is dissolved and titrated against the disodium edetate solution. The volume used is used to calculate purity percentage. For calcium gluconate estimation, an accurately measured volume equivalent to 0.5 g of the compound is titrated against disodium edetate after the addition of magnesium sulfate and ammonia solutions. The volume used is then used to calculate the amount of calcium gluconate present.
This document discusses the theory of acid-base indicators and their use in titrations. It explains that indicators change color within a certain pH range, with examples like methyl orange changing from pink to yellow between pH 3.2-4.5. Two theories are presented for how indicators work: Ostwald's theory, where color change is due to ionization, and the quinonoid theory, where indicators exist in different tautomeric forms with different colors. Phenolphthalein is used to illustrate Ostwald's theory, changing from colorless to pink as it ionizes more in alkaline conditions. Methyl orange is a weak base that changes from yellow to red depending on whether its ionized or unionized form
The document describes 5 qualitative tests used to detect phenols:
1. Litmus test detects phenol's acidity by changing blue litmus to red.
2. Ferric chloride test produces different colored complexes with different phenols.
3. Liebermann's test produces a yellow compound then blue or red colors.
4. Bromine water test causes bromine color to disappear and a white precipitate to form.
5. Phthalein dye test produces different colored compounds with phenols and bases.
Anatacid || B pharmacy First Year || Presentation || kkwagh ||
This presentation is helpful for your study
This Presentation Contain
• Introduction
• characteristics of ideal antacid
• classification of antacid
• Some common use antacid
This document discusses precipitation titrations, specifically Mohr's method for determining chloride concentration. Mohr's method involves titrating a chloride sample with silver nitrate solution until a red silver chromate precipitate forms, indicating the endpoint. The reaction between silver ions and chloride ions forms an insoluble silver chloride precipitate. Potassium chromate is used as the indicator which changes color upon reaction with excess silver ions after all chloride is precipitated. Mohr's method provides an accurate means of determining chloride concentration in neutral or unbuffered solutions like drinking water or saline solutions.
The document discusses physiological acid-base balance. It notes that normal pH is 7.35-7.45, with acidosis occurring below this range and alkalosis above. The body maintains acid-base balance through three main buffer systems, including the carbonic acid-bicarbonate system, and by eliminating ions through the kidneys and respiratory system. The kidneys are a particularly effective regulator as they can eliminate excess hydrogen ions in acidic urine while reabsorbing bicarbonate and excreting ammonium ions. Respiratory adjustments also help balance pH levels.
This document discusses various precipitation titration methods involving silver ions (Ag+). It describes three main methods:
1) Mohr's method uses silver ions as the titrant and chromate ions as the indicator for titrating halide ions like chloride. Silver halide precipitates first, followed by silver chromate at the endpoint.
2) Volhard's method titrates silver ions with thiocyanate ions in acidic medium using ferric ions as the reddish-brown thiocyanate complex indicator.
3) Fajan's method, or indicator adsorption method, involves adsorption of anionic dye indicators onto the precipitated silver halide particles. The intense color change at the
This document discusses acid-base titration, including the theories and classification of acid-base indicators. It defines acids and bases, explaining that acids donate hydrogen ions and bases produce hydroxide ions. Acid-base titration is used to determine the concentration of acids or bases and involves neutralizing reactions between an acid and base. There are four main types of acid-base titrations classified by the strength of the acid and base involved. Indicator selection is also covered, with explanations of both the Ostwald and quinonoid theories of how indicators undergo color changes during titration.
Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative analytical technique used to determine the purity of a sample by measuring its mass. It involves selectively converting the analyte into an insoluble precipitate, filtering to separate the precipitate, drying, igniting, and weighing the precipitate. Key steps include precipitation, digestion or ripening to form larger crystals, filtration, washing to remove impurities, drying and igniting the precipitate, and final weighing and calculations. Accuracy depends on quantitative precipitation and removal of impurities through careful control of parameters like pH, temperature, supersaturation levels, and multiple washings.
1) The document describes acid-base titration techniques, including defining terms like equivalence point and end point.
2) It discusses different types of titrations including strong acid-strong base, weak acid-strong base, and constructing titration curves.
3) Key points are made about calculating pH values before, at, and after the equivalence point for different titration scenarios. The document provides examples of constructing titration curves step-by-step.
1. Precipitation titrations involve the titration of an analyte solution with a reagent that causes the formation of an insoluble precipitate.
2. The Mohr method is commonly used for chloride determination and involves titrating a chloride solution with silver nitrate using potassium chromate as an indicator.
3. At the endpoint, excess silver nitrate reacts with potassium chromate to form a reddish brown silver chromate precipitate, indicating that all the chloride ions have been precipitated out as silver chloride.
Precipitation titration involves titrating a solution with ions that will react to form an insoluble precipitate. Three common argentometric (involving silver ions) precipitation titration methods are described. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator for chloride, bromide, and cyanide analysis in alkaline solutions. Volhard's method employs thiocyanate back titration for analyses in acidic solutions. Fajan's method utilizes adsorption indicators that change color upon binding to the precipitate surface at the endpoint. Each method has advantages and disadvantages depending on the analyte and solution conditions.
The document provides information about diazotization titrations. It discusses the principle, theory, procedure, end point detection, factors affecting, applications, and advantages/disadvantages of diazotization titrations. The key points are:
- Diazotization titrations involve the reaction of a primary aromatic amine with sodium nitrite in acidic medium to form a diazonium salt, which is then titrated.
- The end point is detected using an external indicator like starch iodide paper or electrochemically.
- Factors like acid concentration, temperature, and reaction time must be controlled.
- It can be used to determine drugs and compounds containing
This document discusses non-aqueous titration including reasons for using non-aqueous solvents, common solvent types, and examples of acidimetry and alkalimetry titrations. Protogenic, protophilic, and aprotic solvents are described. Acidimetry involves titrating weak bases like ephedrine HCl with perchloric acid in glacial acetic acid. Alkalimetry involves titrating weak acids like sodium benzoate with sodium methoxide in DMF. The document provides procedures for standardizing a perchloric acid solution and estimating the percentage of ephedrine HCl and sodium benzoate in samples.
This document describes the limit test for lead using diphenylthiocarbazone (dithizone) which forms a violet colored lead-dithizonate complex in an alkaline medium. The method separates any lead impurity in a substance by extracting an alkaline solution with dithizone chloroform solution. The intensity of the violet color complex is then compared to a standard lead solution to determine the amount of lead present.
This document discusses acid-base theories and titration. It covers:
1) Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis acid-base theories.
2) Types of acids and bases as strong or weak.
3) The law of mass action and dissociation constants.
4) Neutralization curves for different types of acid-base titrations and the pH at equivalence points.
5) Choice of indicators for different titrations and mixed indicators.
Neutralization curves show the pH change that occurs when an acid and base are mixed. They are useful for determining the amount of acid or base needed to neutralize a solution. A neutralization curve plots the volume of base added on the x-axis against the pH of the solution on the y-axis. It typically shows a sharp increase in pH at the equivalence point where just enough base has been added to neutralize all the acid present.
This document discusses various inorganic pharmaceutical agents including expectorants, terpin hydrate, ammonium chloride, potassium iodide, and emetics such as antimony potassium tartrate. Expectorants are drugs that stimulate respiratory tract secretions to loosen mucus. Terpin hydrate, ammonium chloride, and potassium iodide are expectorants. Emetics induce vomiting and were formerly used but are limited now due to their depression effects. Antimony potassium tartrate is an emetic with a slow onset of vomiting followed by marked depression.
This document discusses primary and secondary standards used in pharmaceutical analysis. Primary standards are highly pure substances (99.95-100.05%) that are stable over temperature and used to standardize volumetric reagents. They must be easy to obtain and purify, soluble, and react stoichiometrically. Examples include potassium hydrogen phthalate and sodium carbonate. Secondary standards are solutions of known concentration determined by titrating against a primary standard. They have less purity and stability than primary standards and are used when primary standards are not practical, such as sodium hydroxide and potassium permanganate.
Potentiometric - Pharmaceutical Analysis (101T)RAHUL PAL
Potentiometric methods of analysis measure the potential of electrochemical cells under conditions of zero current. The potential difference between a sensing electrode and a reference electrode is measured. A salt bridge containing an inert electrolyte connects the two half-cells and allows ionic movement to complete the electrical circuit. Common reference electrodes include the standard hydrogen electrode, saturated calomel electrode, and silver-silver chloride electrode. Potentiometry is used for applications such as determining electrode potentials, measuring pH, and analyzing samples in clinical chemistry, environmental chemistry, agriculture, and food processing.
This document describes the limit test for arsenic using the Gutzeit method. Arsenic in a sample is converted to arsine gas, which reacts with mercuric chloride paper to produce a stain that is compared to a standard stain. The test uses an apparatus with two glass tubes, where the sample is placed below zinc and hydrochloric acid to produce arsine gas, which passes through mercuric chloride paper to produce a stain after 40 minutes. By comparing the intensity of this test stain to the standard stain produced in the same way from a solution of known arsenic concentration, the document determines if the sample passes or fails the limit test for arsenic.
This document describes procedures for estimating the purity of magnesium sulfate and calcium gluconate. It first details the preparation of a 0.05 M disodium edetate solution and its standardization. For magnesium sulfate estimation, 0.3 g of the compound is dissolved and titrated against the disodium edetate solution. The volume used is used to calculate purity percentage. For calcium gluconate estimation, an accurately measured volume equivalent to 0.5 g of the compound is titrated against disodium edetate after the addition of magnesium sulfate and ammonia solutions. The volume used is then used to calculate the amount of calcium gluconate present.
This document discusses the theory of acid-base indicators and their use in titrations. It explains that indicators change color within a certain pH range, with examples like methyl orange changing from pink to yellow between pH 3.2-4.5. Two theories are presented for how indicators work: Ostwald's theory, where color change is due to ionization, and the quinonoid theory, where indicators exist in different tautomeric forms with different colors. Phenolphthalein is used to illustrate Ostwald's theory, changing from colorless to pink as it ionizes more in alkaline conditions. Methyl orange is a weak base that changes from yellow to red depending on whether its ionized or unionized form
The document describes 5 qualitative tests used to detect phenols:
1. Litmus test detects phenol's acidity by changing blue litmus to red.
2. Ferric chloride test produces different colored complexes with different phenols.
3. Liebermann's test produces a yellow compound then blue or red colors.
4. Bromine water test causes bromine color to disappear and a white precipitate to form.
5. Phthalein dye test produces different colored compounds with phenols and bases.
Anatacid || B pharmacy First Year || Presentation || kkwagh ||
This presentation is helpful for your study
This Presentation Contain
• Introduction
• characteristics of ideal antacid
• classification of antacid
• Some common use antacid
This document discusses precipitation titrations, specifically Mohr's method for determining chloride concentration. Mohr's method involves titrating a chloride sample with silver nitrate solution until a red silver chromate precipitate forms, indicating the endpoint. The reaction between silver ions and chloride ions forms an insoluble silver chloride precipitate. Potassium chromate is used as the indicator which changes color upon reaction with excess silver ions after all chloride is precipitated. Mohr's method provides an accurate means of determining chloride concentration in neutral or unbuffered solutions like drinking water or saline solutions.
The document discusses physiological acid-base balance. It notes that normal pH is 7.35-7.45, with acidosis occurring below this range and alkalosis above. The body maintains acid-base balance through three main buffer systems, including the carbonic acid-bicarbonate system, and by eliminating ions through the kidneys and respiratory system. The kidneys are a particularly effective regulator as they can eliminate excess hydrogen ions in acidic urine while reabsorbing bicarbonate and excreting ammonium ions. Respiratory adjustments also help balance pH levels.
This document discusses various precipitation titration methods involving silver ions (Ag+). It describes three main methods:
1) Mohr's method uses silver ions as the titrant and chromate ions as the indicator for titrating halide ions like chloride. Silver halide precipitates first, followed by silver chromate at the endpoint.
2) Volhard's method titrates silver ions with thiocyanate ions in acidic medium using ferric ions as the reddish-brown thiocyanate complex indicator.
3) Fajan's method, or indicator adsorption method, involves adsorption of anionic dye indicators onto the precipitated silver halide particles. The intense color change at the
This document discusses acid-base titration, including the theories and classification of acid-base indicators. It defines acids and bases, explaining that acids donate hydrogen ions and bases produce hydroxide ions. Acid-base titration is used to determine the concentration of acids or bases and involves neutralizing reactions between an acid and base. There are four main types of acid-base titrations classified by the strength of the acid and base involved. Indicator selection is also covered, with explanations of both the Ostwald and quinonoid theories of how indicators undergo color changes during titration.
Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative analytical technique used to determine the purity of a sample by measuring its mass. It involves selectively converting the analyte into an insoluble precipitate, filtering to separate the precipitate, drying, igniting, and weighing the precipitate. Key steps include precipitation, digestion or ripening to form larger crystals, filtration, washing to remove impurities, drying and igniting the precipitate, and final weighing and calculations. Accuracy depends on quantitative precipitation and removal of impurities through careful control of parameters like pH, temperature, supersaturation levels, and multiple washings.
1) The document describes acid-base titration techniques, including defining terms like equivalence point and end point.
2) It discusses different types of titrations including strong acid-strong base, weak acid-strong base, and constructing titration curves.
3) Key points are made about calculating pH values before, at, and after the equivalence point for different titration scenarios. The document provides examples of constructing titration curves step-by-step.
1. Precipitation titrations involve the titration of an analyte solution with a reagent that causes the formation of an insoluble precipitate.
2. The Mohr method is commonly used for chloride determination and involves titrating a chloride solution with silver nitrate using potassium chromate as an indicator.
3. At the endpoint, excess silver nitrate reacts with potassium chromate to form a reddish brown silver chromate precipitate, indicating that all the chloride ions have been precipitated out as silver chloride.
Precipitation titration involves titrating a solution with ions that will react to form an insoluble precipitate. Three common argentometric (involving silver ions) precipitation titration methods are described. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator for chloride, bromide, and cyanide analysis in alkaline solutions. Volhard's method employs thiocyanate back titration for analyses in acidic solutions. Fajan's method utilizes adsorption indicators that change color upon binding to the precipitate surface at the endpoint. Each method has advantages and disadvantages depending on the analyte and solution conditions.
A presentation on precipitation titration & its implication On titrationNihar Ranjan Dash
Precipitation titration involves the formation of an insoluble salt precipitate between the titrant and analyte. This titration continues until all of the analyte is consumed. Some common precipitation titrations include the titration of silver nitrate with halide ions like chloride. There are several methods for precipitation titration including Mohr's method, Volhard's method, and Fajan's method which use different indicators to detect the endpoint. Precipitation titration has limitations in detecting the endpoint and potential co-precipitation, but it can be used to quantitatively analyze ions like bromide, chloride, carbonate, iodide, sulfide, and thiocyanate.
Precipitation titrations involve the titration of an analyte ion against a standard solution that causes the analyte to precipitate out of solution. Argentometric titrations, which use silver ions, are common precipitation titrations. Mohr's method uses potassium chromate as an indicator for chloride, bromide, and cyanide ions. Volhard's method involves a back titration of excess silver with thiocyanate. Fajan's method uses adsorption indicators that change color when adsorbed onto the precipitate. The different argentometric methods each have advantages and disadvantages regarding factors like speed, applicable ions, and endpoint detection.
This document describes the precipitation method for determining the chloride ion concentration of a solution by titration with silver nitrate. Silver nitrate is added until all chloride ions are precipitated as silver chloride. Additional silver ions then react with potassium chromate indicator to form a red-brown silver chromate precipitate, signaling the endpoint. The method can be used to analyze water samples. It involves titrating aliquots of the sample with a standardized silver nitrate solution until concordant results are obtained.
Precipitation titrations involve the titration of an analyte with a reagent to form an insoluble precipitate. The most common precipitation reaction used is between silver ions and chloride, bromide, iodide or thiocyanate ions. This type of titration is called an argentometric titration. Common methods for argentometric titrations include Mohr's method, which uses potassium chromate as an indicator, and Fajan's method, which uses an adsorption indicator that changes color when it adsorbs onto the precipitate surface at the endpoint.
This document describes the precipitation method for determining the chloride ion concentration of a solution by titrating with silver nitrate. As silver nitrate is added, silver chloride precipitates out until the endpoint is reached, indicated by a color change from yellow to red-brown due to the formation of silver chromate from the potassium chromate indicator. The concentration of chloride ions in the original sample can then be calculated based on the titration results. Solutions of silver nitrate and potassium chromate indicator are needed, along with common lab equipment like a burette, pipettes, and flasks. The method involves diluting the sample, adding indicator, and titrating with silver nitrate while monitoring for the color change at the endpoint.
Precipitation titrations involve the titration of an analyte with a reagent to form an insoluble precipitate. The most common precipitation reaction used is between silver ions and various anions like chloride, bromide, and iodide. Argentometric titrations, which use silver, are based on the rapid and reproducible reaction of silver salts. Mohr's method directly titrates halide ions with silver nitrate using potassium chromate as an indicator, which forms a brick red silver chromate precipitate at the endpoint. Fajan's method uses organic indicators that adsorb onto the surface of the precipitating silver salt, changing color at the endpoint.
chemical oxygen demand -analysis using APHA manualSHERIN RAHMAN
This document provides details on methods for analyzing chemical oxygen demand (COD) using standards from the American Public Health Association (APHA) manual. It describes three common COD analysis methods: the open reflux method, closed reflux titrimetric method, and closed reflux colorimetric method. For each method, it outlines the key steps, including refluxing samples with dichromate and sulfuric acid, and then titrating or measuring color change to determine the amount of dichromate consumed and calculate the COD level. The document also discusses interferences, limitations, sampling, and analysis of COD values both above and below 50 mg O2/L.
This document discusses precipitation titration, which involves the formation of an insoluble precipitate during titration. It describes the Mohr, Volhard, and Fajans methods for detecting the endpoint of precipitation titrations using different indicators like chromate, iron, and fluorescein. The Volhard method, which detects the endpoint potentiometrically by titrating excess silver with thiocyanate, is highlighted as being widely used. Limitations and ways to overcome problems of precipitation titration are also outlined.
1. Precipitation involves combining two ionic species to form an insoluble product, forcing the reaction to completion. For precipitation reactions to be useful in titrimetric analysis, the precipitate must be insoluble and form rapidly and quantitatively without interference from adsorption effects. The equivalence point must also be detectable.
2. Factors that affect solubility include common ion effect, temperature, solvent, and pH. Solubility product constants describe the solubility equilibrium of slightly soluble salts. Fractional precipitation determines which salt will precipitate first when multiple anions are present.
3. Direct and indirect precipitation titrations can be used. Direct titrations detect the equivalence point by formation of a colored
This is a general presentation about Argentometric Titration or well known as Precipitation Titration. Contain Mohr Methods, Volhard Methods, and Fajans Methods.
Ion exchange chromatography uses ion exchange resins to separate ionic compounds. The document discusses the principles and process of ion exchange chromatography. It involves an ionic compound binding electrostatically to functional groups on a solid resin through ion exchange. The ions can then be separated and eluted by changing the mobile phase solution. The document provides details on the types of ion exchange resins, factors affecting ion separation, and applications such as producing deionized water and separating amino acids and lanthanides.
Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of a substance by measuring its mass. There are two main types: precipitation methods where the analyte is converted to an insoluble precipitate, and volatilization methods where the analyte or its decomposition products are volatilized. An example precipitation method determines calcium content in water by precipitating calcium as calcium oxalate, then igniting to form calcium oxide and weighing. Precipitates must have known composition after drying or ignition to calculate results from their weight.
This document provides an overview of conductometry and its applications. It discusses Ohm's law and how conductivity is measured using electrodes, standard solutions, and a conductivity cell. Factors that affect conductivity include ion size, temperature, charge, and number. Conductometric titrations can be used to determine endpoints and are advantageous because no indicator is needed. Types of titrations discussed include acid-base, precipitation, replacement, redox, and complexometric. Recent applications include use in refineries, estimating polyelectrolytes, and biotechnology/environmental monitoring.
This document provides an overview of conductometry and its applications. It discusses Ohm's law and how conductivity is measured using electrodes, standard solutions, and a conductivity cell. Factors that affect conductivity include ion size, temperature, charge, and number. Conductometric titrations can be used to determine endpoints and are advantageous because no indicator is needed. Types of titrations discussed include acid-base, precipitation, replacement, redox, and complexometric. Recent applications include use in refineries, biotechnology, and environmental monitoring.
This document provides an overview of physio-chemical processes including precipitation, ignition, distillation, vaporization, evaporation, and others. It discusses these processes in detail, providing definitions, examples, and applications. Specifically, it discusses precipitation reactions and how insoluble solids are formed, defines ignition as strongly heating an organic substance until only inorganic residue remains, and describes different types of distillation like simple, fractional, and steam distillation used to separate liquid mixtures.
Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative analytical technique where the analyte is converted into a precipitate and weighed. There are two major types - precipitation and volatilization. In precipitation, the analyte forms an insoluble precipitate which is filtered, dried, and weighed. Factors like temperature, pH, and common ion effect influence the completeness and solubility of precipitates. Particle size and purity depend on factors controlling nucleation and growth during precipitation. Gravimetric analysis provides highly accurate quantitative results.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
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2. SCOPE
This course deals with the fundamentals of
analytical chemistry, various techniques of
analysis, principles of electrochemical
analysis of drugs and their role in chemical
research. This lecture basically focuses on
precipitation titration.
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3. OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Know the concept of precipitation titration
2. Know about various methods involved in
precipitation titration.
3. Know about various application of precipitation
titrations.
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4. CONTENTS
• Introduction
• General principle and theory
• Mohr’s Method
• Volhard’s Method
• Fajan’s Method
• Applications
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5. Introduction
• Precipitation is the process in which there is combination
of ionic species to form insoluble product. This product is
called as precipitate or phenomenon is precipitation.
• These precipitation titrations involves formation of
precipitate at equivalence point which indicate completion
of the reaction. It is also known as argentometric titration.
Ideal properties of precipitation titrations :
• The precipitate must be insoluble in the liquid.
• The process of precipitation should be rapid.
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6. • The titration results should not be affected by adsorption
problems.
• It should be easy to detect the end point during the
titration.
• The indicator must be suitable to determine the end point.
• The choice of precipitating agent should depend upon
solubility of the drug inside the solvent used.
One of the main reasons for the limited use of such
titrations is the lack of suitable indicators to detect the end
point.
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7. Theory
• The precipitation of many products occurs mainly due to solubility. The
solute molecules are held together by inter molecular forces of
attraction.
• In order to dissolve a solid, these forces of attraction must be overcome
so that solute-solute attraction is replaced by solute-solvent attraction.
• The solvent should compete with crystal forces and overcome them,
which often means that the solvent environment must be similar to that
provided by the crystalline structure.
• During precipitation, the inter molecular forces between the molecules
of the product are high and solute-solute forces replace the solute –
solvent forces.
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8. The solubility mainly depends upon several factors such as ions, pH,
temperature and solvents etc.
1) Common ion effect: The solubility of any slightly soluble salt can be
decreased by adding an excess of either of its ions.
Ex.- The dissociation of a slightly soluble salt BA is
BA(S) ⇌ B+ + A-
At equilibrium,
Ksp = [B+] [A-]
Ksp = Solubility product which is a constant
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9. • If, an excess of either B+ or A- ions are added in the form of another salt
(whose solubility is greater than that of BA), then the product of ionic
concentrations [B+][A-] will exceed the solubility product and hence BA
will precipitate, The common ion effect provides a valuable method for
controlling (the concentration of the ions furnished by a weak
electrolyte.
• Effect of pH in solubility : The solubility of a salt will be decreased by
an increase in pH and vice versa and mainly depends on the anion of the
salt and it is a conjugate base of a weak acid or cation which is conjugate
acid of a weak base.
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10. Effect of temperature on solubility : The solubility of the precipitate
increases with the rise in temperature.
• The influence of temperature is small in case of some substances, but
with some substances it is quite appreciable.
• The solubility of AgCl at 10°C and 100°C is 1.72 and 21.1 mg / lit., while
that of BaSo4 is 2.2 and 3.9 mg/lit. respectively.
Effect of the solvent upon the solubility : The solubility of most
inorganic compounds is reduced by the addition of organic solvents
such as alcohols.
• Ex : The addition of above 20% by volume of ethanol renders the
solubility of lead sulphate practically negligible, thus permitting
quantitative separation
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11. Determination of end point
1. Mohr’s method- depends upon formation of colored precipitate.
2. Volhard’s method- depends upon formation of soluble colored
compound or colored complex ions (colored solution).
3. Fajan’s method- depends on the formation of colored adsorption
compound.
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According to the method of detection of endpoint, precipitation titration is
classified into 3 main types:
12. Principle : It is one of the important precipitation method used for
quantitative determination of halide ion. It was developed by Mohr in
1856.
• Silver nitrate is used as precipitated agent to precipitate the analyte
chloride ion (Cl-). Chromate solution (CrO4
-2) is used as indicator to
determine the end point.
• The end point is activated when there is appearance of brick red
precipitate of silver chromate. The following reaction takes place
• AgNO3 Ag+ + NO3
-
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Mohr’s Method
13. Ag+ + Cl- AgCl (Ppt.)
2Ag+ + CrO4
-2 Ag2 CrO4 (ppt.)
• Firstly silver ions combine to chloride ions to form highly insoluble
AgCl precipitation.
• When all chloride ions consumed then excess silver ions will react
with chromate to form silver chromates.
• First of all AgCl precipitation occurs, sometimes even though silver
chromates appears then it immediately converts to AgCl.
Ag2CrO4 + 2 Cl- 2 AgCl + CrO4
-2
When the whole of chloride has been used up, silver chromate will be
formed and brick red coloration or precipitate will appear.
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14. Procedure
• Dissolve 1.69 g AgNO3 in little amount of distilled water. When it
dissolves completely then make it up to 100 mL with distilled water. It
will produce 0.1 N AgNO3 Solution.
• Consider that we have to determine the concentration of Cl- in a sample
NaCl or KCl. For this weigh accurately 1.2 g of NaCl or 1.6 g of KCl and
dissolve in distilled water and make it up to 250 mL with distilled
water.
• Transfer 50 mL of Chloride solution into conical flask & add 2 mL of
potassium chromate solution as indicator.
• Fill the burette with 0.1 N AgNO3 Solution.
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15. • Now start the titration by drop wise addition of AgNO3 from burette
with continuous shaking of conical flask.
• A time will reach when a brick redcolor of non uniform intensity will
produce. Continue the titration till uniform brick redcolor is produced.
Note the reading as this end point.
• Perform blank titration and subtract the blank volume from the
previous volume.
• To check the quantity of Cl- ions
• 1mL of 0.1 N AgNO3 is equivalent to 0.003558 g of Chloride.
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16. Main features of Mohr’s Method
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Sample Cl-, Br- (Not for I- or SCN-)
Type of titration Direct titration
pH Neutral or slightly alkaline
Indicator Potassium Chromate
Standard solution Standard AgNO3
Color at end point Brick red color
17. Limitations
1. pH- Mohr method should be done in neutral or slightly alkaline
medium (pH= 6.5-9) because:
• At acidic pH: The chromate ion changes into acid chromate (HCrO4
-)
and then to dichromate (Cr2O7
-). Both these form soluble salts with
silver ions and so no colored ppt will formed at the end point. To
overcome this sufficient CaCO3 is added to neutralize it.
• At basic pH (>9): If the solution is basic, then the AgNO3 forms silver
hydroxide. To overcome this dil. nitric acid is added to neutralize it.
Ag+ + OH- AgOH (Silver hydroxide)
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18. 2. This method is not suitable for iodides because the color of precipitate
of AgI is similar to potassium chromate solution. Due to this end point
detection is difficult to recognize.
3. For titrating chlorides and bromides of barium, the solution is treated
with a slight excess of potassium sulphate. This is due to the insoluble
nature of barium sulphate than silver chromate and will be precipitated
earlier.
4. Silver chromate is more soluble than silver chloride so that no silver
chromate be precipitated until all Cl- ions have been precipitated as
AgCl provided that the CrO4
- conc. should be adjusted to make silver
chromate formed only at the end point and so prevent error in the end
point. 1 ml of 5% K2CrO4 solution is suitable.
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19. Applications
• Some of the important drugs determine by this method are
NaCl and dextrose injection.
• Used for estimation of Cl- in body fluids.
• Used for estimation of Chromate ion
• It is useful for estimation of NaCl and KCl in electrolytic
combination.
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20. Volhard’s Method
• It was developed by Volhard in 1874. It was developed for estimation
of silver in the presence of dil. HNO3 by titrating against standard
thiocyanate (SCN) solution in presence of ferric salt as indicator (ferric
alum). It is carried out in acidic medium in order to prevent the
hydrolysis of ferric ion.
• Volhard, a process for assessing chlorine, bromine, and iodine in the
form of halides by precipitating them with excess silver nitrate and
using a thiocyanate solution to titrate excess.
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21. Principle :
• Analyte is treated with the measured excess of Silver nitrate:
X- + Ag+ AgX + Ag+ (excess)
• The unreacted Silver ions are titrated with a standard solution of
Thiocyanate ion, using Fe(III) as indicator:
Ag+ + SCN- AgSCN
• When all the silver has been consumed then upon further addition of
SCN, reaction takes place between ferric ion and SCN ions to form red
colored ferric thiocyanate complex.
Fe3+ + 3SCN- Fe(SCN)3 (red color)
• The formation of red color complex denotes the end point.
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22. Preparation of 0.1 N AgNO3 solution
• Dissolve 1.69 g AgNO3 in little amount of distilled water. When it
dissolves completely then make it up to 100 mL with distilled water. It
will produce 0.1 N AgNO3 Solution.
Preparation of 0.1 N KSCNsolution
• Weigh accurately 0.97 g KSCN and dilute upto 100 mL with distilled
water.
Procedure
• Fill the burette with KSCN solution. Transfer 25 mL or excess of 0.1 N
AgNO3 solution into conical flask and add 10 mL of dil. HNO3 solution.
• Now add 1 mL of ferric salt to conical flask & titrate the contents with
titrant (KSCN) from burette.
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23. • Add few mL of nitrobenzene to prevent the interference
with chloride impurities. When there is permanent
appearance of red color then stop the titration & note the
reading.
• Perform blank titration and subtract the blank volume
from the previous volume and calculate the conc. of Ag+
present in the sample.
• Calculate the percentage of silver in the sample
• 1mL of 0.1 N KSCN is equivalent to 0.0108 g of Silver.
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24. Main features of Volhard’s Method
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Sample All halogens and
thiocyanates
Type of titration Indirect titration
pH Acidic pH
Indicator Iron(III) alum
Standard solution Ammonium thiocyanate
Color at end point Appearance of red
complex with Fe3+ ions
• The Volhard method is an indirect or back titration method in which an excess
of a standard solution of silver nitrate is added to a chloride containing sample
solution.
• The excess silver is then back titrated using a standardized solution of
potassium or ammonium thiocyanate with ferric ion as an indicator. The
amount of silver that is precipitated with chloride in the sample solution is
calculated by subtracting the excess silver from the original silver content.
25. Modified Volhard’s method
• When chlorides are analyzed, the Volhard method has to be slightly
modified. During titration, the solution is in contact with two
precipitates simultaneously AgCl and AgSCN, which have different
solubility (AgSCN is less soluble than AgCl).
• So, after titration, the excess SCN- ions react with the AgCl in
precipitate, and the red color of the iron-thiocyanate complex gradually
disappears.
• Addition of next portion of SCN- restores it, but after short time the
process repeats. This could lead to huge error in analysis.
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26. • To avoid this, before titration with thiocyanates, add a solution of few
mL of an organic liquid (chloroform, nitrobenzene etc.) which does not
mix with water.
• This compound will moisten the surface of the precipitate forming on it
a film (layer) insoluble in water and thus isolating it from the solution.
This effectively prevents any exchange of ions between precipitate and
solution.
Limitations of Volhard's method
• Can not be used where the solution has to be neutral.
• Time consuming
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27. Applications
• Sulphanomide derivatives can be assayed by Volhard method.
• This method has applications in estimation of ferric ions in
haematinics.
• Modified volhard’s method can be used for estimating following drugs
a) Aminophylline ( Bronchodilator)
b) Aminophylline injection
c) Aminophylline tablet
d) NaCl injection.
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28. Fajan’s Method
• It was developed by Fajan in 1923 -1924. This method employs
adsorption indicator for detection of end point.
• Principle : The action of adsorption indicator is based upon the fact
that at the end point, the indicator get adsorbed on the surface of the
precipitate and there is color change.
• Various indicators like flourescein, Eosin, Dichlorofluorscein can be
used to detect the end point.
• Mechanism of Adsorption: Let us consider the titration between
sodium chloride and silver nitrate. When a Cl- salt reacts with Ag+ ions
there is formation of insoluble AgCl precipitates. The ions surrounding
the layer of precipitate constitute primary adsorbed layer.
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29. • As the precipitation proceeds & reaches near completion. There is
decrease in Cl- ions concentration & the ion in the primary layer are
replaced by opposite charges. The newly formed layer is called as
secondary adsorbed layer.
• When all the Cl- ions has been converted to AgCl then the indicator gets
adsorbed to secondary layer and causes color change. This point is
called end point.
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30. Procedure
• Prepare 0.1 N standard NaCl solution.
• Prepare 0.1 N AgNO3 solution and fill it with burette.
• Transfer 25 mL of 0.1 N NaCl standard solution to a conical flask and
add 10 drops of fluorescein indicator.
• Add 0.1 g dextrin to prevent the coagulation of AgCl.
• Now start the titration by drop wise addition of AgNO3 solution from
burette and continue till the color changes from yellow to pink.
• Repeat the titration for 3 times and calculate the average value & then
determine the conc. of Cl- ion and exact normality of AgNO3.
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31. 16-07-2022 31
Main features of Fajan’s Method
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Sample Cl-, Br-
Type of titration Direct titration
pH Neutral
Indicator Dichlorofluorescein
(Adsorption indicator)
Standard solution Standard AgNO3
Color at end point Appearance of pink color
32. Indicators used in Fajan’s method
Name of indicator Experimental
conditions
Color change at
end point
Dichlorofluorescein pH range 4.4 to 7 Yellow green to
red
Tartrazine Back titration Colorless to green
Fluorescein Neutral or weakly
basic solution
Yellow green to
pink
Tetrabromo
fluorescein
Ethanoic acid
solution
Pink to red violet
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33. Limitations
• Low background levels of non-reacting ions to ensure that coagulation
does not occur.
• Will not work with very low levels as there will not be enough
precipitate to allow the color change to be observed.
• Method is pH dependent as the indicator must be in the ionized form.
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34. Applications
• It is used for the estimation of NaCl
• It is also used for the estimation of Cl- ion in binary mixtures &
biological fluids.
• It is also used for standardization of AgNO3 solution.
Estimation of NaCl
• Estimation of NaCl ( Sodium chloride) or Assay of Sodium chloride can
be done by Mohr’s Method or Fajan’s Method ( Here you can write
any one method either Mohr’s or Fajan’s method ).
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35. Comparison of silver titration methods
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Method Advantages Disadvantages
Mohr’s • Simple • For alkaline solutions
only
• Not suitable for iodides
Volhard’s • Capable of direct silver and
indirect halide analyses
• Very clear color change
• Must be 1M nitric acid
solution.
• Some problems with
specific ions.
Modified
Volhard’s
• It minimize the error
occurred in Volhard’s
method due to the addition
of nitrobenzene solution
• Must be 1M nitric acid
solution.
Fajan’s • Capability for different pH
ranges and selectivity with
different indicators
• Difficulty with dilute
solutions
• Should not be a high
background ionic level.
36. References
1. G. Vidyasagar “Text Book of Pharmaceutical Analysis”,
Kalyani publishers, Vol 1, Ist edition, 2005, Page no. 93-101
2. R. M Verma Textbook of Analytical Chemistry, CBS
Publishers, 3rd edition, 2008
3. Ashutosh Kar “Pharmaceutical Analysis” CBS Publishers,
Volume 1, Ist edition, 2010
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37. Questions
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1. What is precipitation titration?
2. Give the ideal characteristics for precipitation titration.
3. Describe in detail the influence of a) Acid b) Temperature c) Solvent
4. Explain in detailed about the following precipitation reactions,
namely
i) Volhard’s method
ii) Mohr’s method
iii) Fajan’s method
5. Enumerate the limitations of mohr’s method.
6. Write down the applications of precipitation titrations.