The earliest voltammetric technique
Heyrovsky invented the original polarographic method in 1922, conventional direct current polarography (DCP).
It employs a dropping mercury electrode (DME) to continuously renew the electrode surface.
Diffusion is the mechanism of mass transport.
When an external potential is applied to a cell
containing a reducing substance such as CdCl2,
The following reaction will occur:
Cd2+ + 2e + Hg = Cd(Hg)
The technique depends on increasing the applied
voltage at a steady rate and simultaneously
record photographically the current-voltage
curve (polarogram)
The apparatus used is called a polarograph .
When an external potential is applied to a cell
containing a reducing substance such as CdCl2,
The following reaction will occur:
Cd2+ + 2e + Hg = Cd(Hg)
The technique depends on increasing the applied
voltage at a steady rate and simultaneously
record photographically the current-voltage
curve (polarogram)
The apparatus used is called a polarograph .
Capillary tube about 10-15cm
Int. diameter of 0.05mm
A vertical distance being maintained betwwen DME and the solution
Drop time of 1-5 seconds
Drop diameter 0.5mm
The supporting electrolyte
is a solution of (KNO3, NaCl, Na3PO4) in which the sample (which must be electroactive) is dissolved.
Function of the supporting electrolyte
It raises the conductivity of the solution.
It carries the bulk of the current so prevent the
migration of electroactive materials to working
electrode.
It may control pH
It may associate with the electroactive solute as
in the complexing of the metal ions by ligands.
The earliest voltammetric technique
Heyrovsky invented the original polarographic method in 1922, conventional direct current polarography (DCP).
It employs a dropping mercury electrode (DME) to continuously renew the electrode surface.
Diffusion is the mechanism of mass transport.
When an external potential is applied to a cell
containing a reducing substance such as CdCl2,
The following reaction will occur:
Cd2+ + 2e + Hg = Cd(Hg)
The technique depends on increasing the applied
voltage at a steady rate and simultaneously
record photographically the current-voltage
curve (polarogram)
The apparatus used is called a polarograph .
When an external potential is applied to a cell
containing a reducing substance such as CdCl2,
The following reaction will occur:
Cd2+ + 2e + Hg = Cd(Hg)
The technique depends on increasing the applied
voltage at a steady rate and simultaneously
record photographically the current-voltage
curve (polarogram)
The apparatus used is called a polarograph .
Capillary tube about 10-15cm
Int. diameter of 0.05mm
A vertical distance being maintained betwwen DME and the solution
Drop time of 1-5 seconds
Drop diameter 0.5mm
The supporting electrolyte
is a solution of (KNO3, NaCl, Na3PO4) in which the sample (which must be electroactive) is dissolved.
Function of the supporting electrolyte
It raises the conductivity of the solution.
It carries the bulk of the current so prevent the
migration of electroactive materials to working
electrode.
It may control pH
It may associate with the electroactive solute as
in the complexing of the metal ions by ligands.
content- Principle
Ilkovic equation
Construction and working of dropping mercury electrode and rotating platinum electrode
Applications
Polarography is a voltammetric technique in which chemical species (ions or molecules) undergo oxidation (lose electrons) or reduction (gain electrons) at the surface of a dropping mercury electrode (DME) at an applied potential. Polarography only applies to the DME.
Objective of polarography
Polarography is an electroanalytical technique that measures the current flowing between two electrodes in the solution (in the presence of gradually increasing applied voltage) to determine the concentration of solute and its nature respectively
Polarography is based upon the principle that gradually increasing voltage is applied between two electrodes, one of which is polarisable (dropping mercury electrode) and other is non-polarisable and current flowing between the two electrodes is recorded.
A sigmoid shape current-voltage curve is obtained from which half wave potential as well as diffusion current is calculated.
Diffusion current is used for determination of concentration of substance.
Half wave potential is characteristic of every element.
Ilkovic equation is a relation used in polarography relating the diffusion current (id) and the concentration of the non-polarisable electrode, i.e., the substance reduced or oxidised at the dropping mercury electrode (polarisable electrode).
Definitions of types of currents
1. Residual current (ir), 2. Migration current (im): , 3. Diffusion current (id) 4.Half wave potential 5. Limiting current (il)
Dropping mercury electrode- Dropping mercury electrode (DME) is a polarisable electrode and can act as both anode and cathode.
The pool of mercury acts as counter electrode,
i.e., anode if DME is cathode or
cathode if DME is anode.
The counter electrode is a non-polarisable electrode.
To the analyte solution, electrolyte like KCl is added i.e., 50-100 times of sample concentration.
Pure nitrogen or hydrogen gas is bubbled through the solution, to expel (remove) out oxygen.
Eg: If the analyte solution contains cadmium ions, then cadmium ions are discharged at cathode (-)
Cd2+ + 2e- → Cd
Then, gradually increasing voltage is applied to the polarographic cell and current is recorded.
Graph is plotted between voltage applied and current. This graph is called Polarograph and the apparatus is known as Polarogram.
The diffusion current produced is directly proportional to concentration of analyte and this is used in quantitative analysis.
The half wave potential is characteristic of every compound and this is used in qualitative analysis.
Graph is plotted between voltage applied and current. This graph is called Polarograph and the apparatus is known as Polarogram.
The diffusion current produced is directly proportional to concentration of analyte and this is used in quantitative analysis.
The half wave potential is characteristic of every compound
Potentiometry, Electrochemical cell, construction and working of indicator an...Vandana Devesh Sharma
Potentiometry - Electrochemical cell -Construction and working of reference (Standard hydrogen, silver chloride electrode and calomel electrode)
Indicator electrodes (metal electrodes and glass electrode)
Methods to determine end point of potentiometric titration
and applications
Potentiometry is the method to find the concentration of solute in
A given solution by measuring the potential between two Electrodes
(reference and Indicator electrode) . Potentiometric titration involves
the measurement of the potential of the indicator electrode and
reference electrode.
In potentiometric titration reference and indicator electrodes are
immersed in the solution of particular analyte (titrand) and
potential of indicator electrode is measured with relation to
reference electrode.
Titrant is added in analyte (Titrand) and change in potential is noted
down.
At the end point there is sharp change in potential on indicator
electrode.
Graph is plotted between the indicator electrode potential and
volume of titrant added.
This method is used for determination of sharp end point.
Types of Potentiometric Titration
1. Acid-base titration 2. Redox Titration 3.Complexometric titration 4. Precipitation Titration
more chemistry contents are available
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4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
EDTA Titration
Polarographic technique is applied for the qualitative or quantitative analysis of electroreducible or oxidisable elements or groups.
It is an electromechanical technique of analyzing solutions that measures the current flowing between two electrodes in the solution as well as the gradually increasing applied voltage to determine respectively the concentration of a solute and its nature.
The principle in polarography is that a gradually increasing negative potential (voltage) is applied between a polarisable and non-polarisable electrode and the corresponding current is recorded.
Polarisable electrode: Dropping Mercury electrode
Non-polarisable electrode: Saturated Calomel electrode
From the current-voltage curve (Sigmoid shape), qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed. This technique is called as polarography, the instrument used is called as polarograph and the current-voltage curve recorded is called as polarogram
It is a type of quantitative analysis that involves weighing of the constituent under determination.
Or
It is the process of isolating and weighing an element or compound in a pure form.
Or
Gravimetric methods of analysis are based on the measurement of mass.
Electrogravimetry, we deposit the analyte as a solid film an electrode in an electrochemical cell.
Ex: The deposition as PbO2 at a Pt anode and reduction of Cu2+ to Cu at a Pt cathode is of electrogravimetry.
When thermal or chemical energy is used to remove a volatile species, such method called as Volatilization gravimetry.
Ex: In determining the moisture content of bread, for example, we use thermal energy to vaporize the water in the sample.
Particulate gravimetry we determine the analyte by separating it from the sample’s matrix using a filtration or an extraction. The determination of total suspended solids is one example of particulate gravimetry.
A gravimetric precipitating agent should react specifically, and selectively with the analyte. The ideal precipitating reagent would react with the analyte to give a product that is
Readily filtered and washed free of contaminants
Low solubility so that no significant loss of the solid occurs during filtration and washing
Un-reactive with constituents of the atmosphere
Should not alter the composition after it is dried or, if necessary, ignited.
It is an electrochemical method of analysis used for the determination or measurement of the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution by means of a conductometer.
Electric conductivity of an electrolyte solution depends on :
Type of ions (cations, anions, singly or doubly charged
Concentration of ions
Temperature
Mobility of ions
The main principle involved in this method is that the movement of the ions creates the electrical conductivity. The movement of the ions is mainly depended on the concentration of the ions.
The electric conductance in accordance with ohms law which states that the strength of current (i) passing through conductor is directly proportional to potential difference & inversely to resistance.
i =V/R
content- Principle
Ilkovic equation
Construction and working of dropping mercury electrode and rotating platinum electrode
Applications
Polarography is a voltammetric technique in which chemical species (ions or molecules) undergo oxidation (lose electrons) or reduction (gain electrons) at the surface of a dropping mercury electrode (DME) at an applied potential. Polarography only applies to the DME.
Objective of polarography
Polarography is an electroanalytical technique that measures the current flowing between two electrodes in the solution (in the presence of gradually increasing applied voltage) to determine the concentration of solute and its nature respectively
Polarography is based upon the principle that gradually increasing voltage is applied between two electrodes, one of which is polarisable (dropping mercury electrode) and other is non-polarisable and current flowing between the two electrodes is recorded.
A sigmoid shape current-voltage curve is obtained from which half wave potential as well as diffusion current is calculated.
Diffusion current is used for determination of concentration of substance.
Half wave potential is characteristic of every element.
Ilkovic equation is a relation used in polarography relating the diffusion current (id) and the concentration of the non-polarisable electrode, i.e., the substance reduced or oxidised at the dropping mercury electrode (polarisable electrode).
Definitions of types of currents
1. Residual current (ir), 2. Migration current (im): , 3. Diffusion current (id) 4.Half wave potential 5. Limiting current (il)
Dropping mercury electrode- Dropping mercury electrode (DME) is a polarisable electrode and can act as both anode and cathode.
The pool of mercury acts as counter electrode,
i.e., anode if DME is cathode or
cathode if DME is anode.
The counter electrode is a non-polarisable electrode.
To the analyte solution, electrolyte like KCl is added i.e., 50-100 times of sample concentration.
Pure nitrogen or hydrogen gas is bubbled through the solution, to expel (remove) out oxygen.
Eg: If the analyte solution contains cadmium ions, then cadmium ions are discharged at cathode (-)
Cd2+ + 2e- → Cd
Then, gradually increasing voltage is applied to the polarographic cell and current is recorded.
Graph is plotted between voltage applied and current. This graph is called Polarograph and the apparatus is known as Polarogram.
The diffusion current produced is directly proportional to concentration of analyte and this is used in quantitative analysis.
The half wave potential is characteristic of every compound and this is used in qualitative analysis.
Graph is plotted between voltage applied and current. This graph is called Polarograph and the apparatus is known as Polarogram.
The diffusion current produced is directly proportional to concentration of analyte and this is used in quantitative analysis.
The half wave potential is characteristic of every compound
Potentiometry, Electrochemical cell, construction and working of indicator an...Vandana Devesh Sharma
Potentiometry - Electrochemical cell -Construction and working of reference (Standard hydrogen, silver chloride electrode and calomel electrode)
Indicator electrodes (metal electrodes and glass electrode)
Methods to determine end point of potentiometric titration
and applications
Potentiometry is the method to find the concentration of solute in
A given solution by measuring the potential between two Electrodes
(reference and Indicator electrode) . Potentiometric titration involves
the measurement of the potential of the indicator electrode and
reference electrode.
In potentiometric titration reference and indicator electrodes are
immersed in the solution of particular analyte (titrand) and
potential of indicator electrode is measured with relation to
reference electrode.
Titrant is added in analyte (Titrand) and change in potential is noted
down.
At the end point there is sharp change in potential on indicator
electrode.
Graph is plotted between the indicator electrode potential and
volume of titrant added.
This method is used for determination of sharp end point.
Types of Potentiometric Titration
1. Acid-base titration 2. Redox Titration 3.Complexometric titration 4. Precipitation Titration
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
EDTA Titration
Polarographic technique is applied for the qualitative or quantitative analysis of electroreducible or oxidisable elements or groups.
It is an electromechanical technique of analyzing solutions that measures the current flowing between two electrodes in the solution as well as the gradually increasing applied voltage to determine respectively the concentration of a solute and its nature.
The principle in polarography is that a gradually increasing negative potential (voltage) is applied between a polarisable and non-polarisable electrode and the corresponding current is recorded.
Polarisable electrode: Dropping Mercury electrode
Non-polarisable electrode: Saturated Calomel electrode
From the current-voltage curve (Sigmoid shape), qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed. This technique is called as polarography, the instrument used is called as polarograph and the current-voltage curve recorded is called as polarogram
It is a type of quantitative analysis that involves weighing of the constituent under determination.
Or
It is the process of isolating and weighing an element or compound in a pure form.
Or
Gravimetric methods of analysis are based on the measurement of mass.
Electrogravimetry, we deposit the analyte as a solid film an electrode in an electrochemical cell.
Ex: The deposition as PbO2 at a Pt anode and reduction of Cu2+ to Cu at a Pt cathode is of electrogravimetry.
When thermal or chemical energy is used to remove a volatile species, such method called as Volatilization gravimetry.
Ex: In determining the moisture content of bread, for example, we use thermal energy to vaporize the water in the sample.
Particulate gravimetry we determine the analyte by separating it from the sample’s matrix using a filtration or an extraction. The determination of total suspended solids is one example of particulate gravimetry.
A gravimetric precipitating agent should react specifically, and selectively with the analyte. The ideal precipitating reagent would react with the analyte to give a product that is
Readily filtered and washed free of contaminants
Low solubility so that no significant loss of the solid occurs during filtration and washing
Un-reactive with constituents of the atmosphere
Should not alter the composition after it is dried or, if necessary, ignited.
It is an electrochemical method of analysis used for the determination or measurement of the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution by means of a conductometer.
Electric conductivity of an electrolyte solution depends on :
Type of ions (cations, anions, singly or doubly charged
Concentration of ions
Temperature
Mobility of ions
The main principle involved in this method is that the movement of the ions creates the electrical conductivity. The movement of the ions is mainly depended on the concentration of the ions.
The electric conductance in accordance with ohms law which states that the strength of current (i) passing through conductor is directly proportional to potential difference & inversely to resistance.
i =V/R
Introduction
Ohm’s law.
Conductometric measurements.
Factor affecting conductivity.
Application of conductometry.
2.Conductometric titration-:
Introduction.
Types of conductometric tiration.
Advantages of conductometric tiration.
3.Recent devlopement
Conductometry:
is the simplest of the electroanalytical techniques; by Kolthoff in 1929.
Conductors are:
either metallic (flow of electrons) or electrolytic (movemenmt of ions).
Conductance of electricity:
migration of positively charged ions towards the cathode and negatively charged ones towards the anode
(i.e.) current is carried by all ions present in solution.
Conductance depends on the number of ions in solun.
Factors affecting conductance:
1- Temperature:
(1C increase in temperature causes 2 % increase in conductance).
2- Nature of ions
Size, molecular weight and number of charges.
3- Concentration of ions:
As the number of ions increases, the conductance increases.
4- Size of electrodes
Conductance is directly proportional to the cross sectional area (A).
Conductometry is an electrochemical method of analysis involve the measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution. The conductance is defined as the current flow through the conductor.
In other words, it is defined as the reciprocal of the resistance.
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
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4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
Physical Chemistry
Conductometry / conductometric titrationRabia Aziz
more chemistry contents are available
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2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
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4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
conductometric titration
Conductometry is used to analyze ionic species and to monitor a chemical reaction by studying the electrolytic conductivity of the reacting species or the resultant products.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
6. 6
Conductivity measurements
1. Electrodes
Two parallel platinized Pt. foil electrodes or Pt. black with
electrodeposited a porous Pt. film which increases the surface
area of the electrodes and further reduces faradaic polarization.
2. Primary standard solutions
Primary standard KCl solution ,at 25 , 7.419g of℃ KCl in 1000g
of solution has a specific conductivity of 0.01286Ω-1
/cm.
7. 7
3. Conductivity Cell :
Avoid the change of temperature during determination
4.Wheat stone bridge :
8. Factors affecting conductivity:
Size of ions
Temperature
Number of ions
Charge of ions
Specific conductivity:-It is conductivity offered by a
substance of 1cm length and 1sq.cm surface area. units
are mhos/cm.
Equivalent conductivity:-it is conductivity offered by a
solution containing equivalent weight of solute in it.
8
9. 9
Molar conductance of various ions at infinite
dilution at 25℃
ions molar conductance
K+
73.52
Na+
50.11
Li+
38.69
H+
349.82
Ag+
61.92
Cl-
76.34
Br-
78.4
OH-
198
11. 11
The determination of specific conductance of an electrolytic
solution, thus, consists of two steps:
•Determination of cell constant by using a standard KCl
solution of known concentration in the conductivity cell.
•Determination of resistance of he given solution using the
same cell. The reciprocal of this gives the value of
conductance. Multiplication of conductance and cell constant
gives the value of specific conductance of the solution.
In conductance measurements, the solutions are always
prepared in conductivity water which has no conductance due
to dissolved impurities.
It is prepared by distilling a number of times the distilled water
to which a little KMnO4
and KOH have been added in a hard
glass distillation assembly.
Such water has very low conductance of the order of 4.3 × 10-
8
ohm-1
. For ordinary purposes, double distilled water may be
used.
12. APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTOMETRY
It can be used for the determination of:-
Solubility of sparingly soluble salts
Ionic product of water
Basicity of organic acids
Salinity of sea water (oceanographic work)
Chemical equilibrium in ionic reactions
Conductometric titration
12
15. 15
Strong Acid with a Strong Base.
e.g. HCl with NaOH:
Before NaOH is added, the conductance is high due to the presence of highly mobile
hydrogen ions.
When the base is added, the conductance falls due to the replacement of hydrogen
ions by the added cations as H+ ions react with OH− ions to form undissociated water.
This decrease in the conductance continues till the equivalence point. At the
equivalence point, the solution contains only NaCl.
After the equivalence point, the conductance increases due to the large
conductivity of OH- ions
16. 16
Weak Acid with a Strong Base,
e.g. acetic acid with NaOH:
Initially the conductance is low due to the feeble
ionization of acetic acid. On the addition of
base, there is decrease in conductance not only
due to the replacement of H+ by Na+ but also
suppresses the dissociation of acetic acid due
to common ion acetate.
But very soon, the conductance increases on
adding NaOH as NaOH neutralizes the un-
dissociated CH3COOH to CH3COONa which is
the strong electrolyte.
This increase in conductance continues raise
up to the equivalence point. The graph near the
equivalence point is curved due the hydrolysis
of salt CH3COONa.
Beyond the equivalence point, conductance
increases more rapidly with the addition of
NaOH due to the highly conducting OH− ions
17. 17
Weak Acid with a Weak Base:
The nature of curve before the equivalence point is
similar to the curve obtained by titrating weak acid
against strong base.
After the equivalence point, conductance virtually
remains same as the weak base which is being
added is feebly ionized and, therefore, is not much
conducting
18. 18
Mixture of a Strong Acid and a Weak Acid vs. a Strong
Base or a Weak Base:
In this curve there are two break points. The first break point corresponds
to the neutralization of strong acid.
When the strong acid has been completely neutralized only then the weak
acid starts neutralizing.
The second break point corresponds to the neutralization of weak acid and
after that the conductance increases due to the excess of OH− ions in case
of a strong base as the titrant.
However, when the titrant is a weak base, it remains almost constant after
the end point similar to previous titration
19. PRECIPITATION TITRATIONS:-
[K+
+Cl-
]+[Ag+
+No3
_
]
A reaction may be made the basis of a conductometric
precipitation titration provided the reaction product is sparingly
soluble or is a stable complex. The solubility of the precipitate
(or the dissociation of the complex) should be less than 5%.
The addition of ethanol is sometimes recommended to reduce
the solubility in the precipitations.
19
20. REPLACEMENT
TITRATIONS
Salt of strong acid and
weak base vs. strong base
Ex: ammonium chloride vs.
sodium hydroxide
Salt of strong base and
weak acid vs. strong acid
Eg: sodium acetate vs.
hydrochloric acid
20
21. COMPLEXOMETRIC TITRATION
Ex.:-KCl vs. Hg(ClO4)2
Non-aqueous titrations can also be measured
using conductometry.
Ex:-
a)titration of weak bases vs. perchloric acid in
dioxan-formic acid.
b)Titration of weak organic acids in methanol vs.
tetra methyl ammonium hydroxide in methanol-
benzene.
21
22. ADVANTAGES OF
CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATIONS
No need of indicator
Colored or dilute solutions or turbid suspensions can
be used for titrations.
Temperature is maintained constant throughout the
titration.
End point can be determined accurately and errors
are minimized as the end point is being determined
graphically.
22
23. 23
RECENT DEVLOPEMNTS
In refinary industries.
Estimation of polyelectrolytic solution.
Biotechnology.
Microbiosensors for enviromental monitoring.
24. References
Gurdeep.R. chatwal,sham k.anand,instrumental method
of chemical analysis,himalaya publishing
house,2008,p.no.2.482-2.497.
Hovert H.willard,lynne L.merritt,john A.dean,frank
A.settle,jr.,instrumental method of analysis CBS
publishers 1986,p.no.732-750.
Kenneth A. connors,e textbook of pharmaceutical
analysis,third edition,wiley india,p.no. 334.
Danniel christein,analytical chemistry,2nd
edition,wiley
india,p.no. 274.
www.pharmapaedia.com
24
25. www.authorstream.com
Kissinger, P. T., AND W. W. Heineman, eds.,
Laboratory Techniques in Electroanalytical Chemistry,
Dekker, New York, 1984.
A.H.beckett ,J.B. stenlake,practical pharmaceutical
chemistry,fourth edition ,part –two,p.no-91.
Lingane, J.J., Electroanalytical Chemistry, 2nd
ed.,
Wiley- Interscience, New York, 1958
Continued….
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