In writing about your research when you have completed the project you need an explanation of your methodology so that others can understand the significance of what you have done and make sense of how it all worked. The methodology piece says why you did what you did. It also enables you to write about what you did not do and why, and about the weaknesses or limitations of your project as well as its strengths. Every research has a limitation of some sort and it is perfectly acceptable to identify the weaknesses of your own study.

1. 1
QUESTIONNAIRE
Definitions
 A set of predetermined questions for all respondents that serves as a primary research
instrument in survey research.
 Used to collect factual information
 Consist of a form containing a series of questions
 A questionnaire is a series of questions asked to individuals to obtain statistically useful
information about a given topic. When properly constructed and responsibly
administered, questionnaires become a vital instrument by which statements can be made
about specific groups or people or entire populations
Characteristicsofa goodquestionnaire
1. Should be concerned with specific and relevant topic
2. Should be short
3. Directions and wording should be simple and clear
4. Questions should be objective
5. Embarrassing questions, presuming questions and hypothetical questions should be
avoided
6. Should be presented in a good order
7. Should be attractive, neatly printed and clearly arranged
Functions of questionnaire
DESCRITION
The questionnaire provides description about age, sex, marital status, occupation, income,
political affiliation religious affiliation, etc.

2. 2
MEASUREMENT
Measurement of individual and/or group variables like attitude, opinion, traits and habits
of persons.
Types of questionnaire
1. Structured questionnaires (ClosedEnded Questions)
Structured questionnaires are based predominantly on closed questions which
produce data that can be analyzed quantitatively for patterns and trends. The agenda is
entirely predetermined by the evaluator and provides little flexibility for respondents to
qualify their answers. A closed question can be answered with either 'yes' or 'no'.
A likert scale is commonly used in survey research it is often used to measure
respondents attitudes by asking the extent to which they agree or disagree with a particular
question or statement.
For example
Do you have a library membership card?
Yes ( ) No ( )
Example:
To what extent the information obtained from the web based resources are useful to you?
(Likert Scale)
Sl. No. Extent
1 Unsatisfied
2 Somewhat satisfied
3 Neutral
4 Satisfied
5 Extremely satisfied

3. 3
2. Unstructured questionnaires (Open-ended)
Non-structured questions, or open-ended questions, are questions where there is no
list of answer choices from which to choose. Respondents are simply asked to write their
response to a question. Here is an example: An open question is likely to receive a long
answer.
Example of a Non-structured Question
What are the facilities and services do you expect from your library?
3. Semi-structured questionnaires (Partially Structured Question)
Take a mixed approach in this type. In some situations, you may have a partial list of
answer choices, but you may still have some doubt or uncertainty about other possible
responses. You can create a partially structured question such as the following:
Example of a Partially Structured Question
What purpose do you use web based resources?
For research work
To write assignments
Questionnaire as instruments
 Most survey research relies on the use of questionnaire to measure variables
 Demographic variables
 The accuracy and precision of questionnaire requires expertise and care in their
construction
 Self report scales
Reliability
 Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement.
 Reliable test should yield similar(consistent) results each time it is taken

4. 4
 Common method: test- retest reliability
FACTORS AFFECTING RELIABILITY:
 Number of items
 Variability
 Condition in which the questionnaire is administered
Validity
 It refers to the truthfulness of a measure
 Does it measure what it intends to measure?
Constructing a questionnaire
Deciding type, writing a draft, pretesting, concluding with specific procedures.
STEPS:
1. Decide what information should be sought
2. Decide what type of questionnaire should be used
3. Write a first draft of the questionnaire
4. Reexamine and revise the questionnaire
5. Pretest the questionnaire
6. Edit the questionnaire and specify the procedures for its use.
WORDINGS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE:
 Simplicity in language
 Avoid ambiguity
 Avoid vague words

5. 5
 Avoid embarrassing questions
 Avoid double negatives
 Avoid leading questions
 Presuming questions
 Hypothetical questions
ORDER OF THE QUESTIONS:
 Begin with simple and general questions
 No sensitive and embarrassing questions at beginning
 Move from general to specific in logical manner
 Sensitive questions at the end
 Demographic data should be obtained at the end of self administering questions
 Kahn & Cannel (1975) Funnel sequence: Start with broad questions and gradually
narrow down to the specific questions related to the topic.
Conclusion
1. Questionnaire are the main and easy way collecting data
2. But the questionnaire must be highly reliable and valid.
3. Using standardized questionnaires will give us the appropriate data and will yield a valid
study
4. One must follow all the basic guidelines and methods of constructing a questionnaire and
test it before using it.

6. 6
INTERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Interview is the verbal conversation between two people with the objective of collecting
relevant information for the purpose of research.
DEFINITION
 Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences.
 The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around the topic.
 Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1. Personal Interview
2. Telephone Interview
3. Focus Group Interview
4. Depth Interview
5. Projective Techniques
1. Personal Interview
Personal Interview: Is a face to face two way communication between the interviewer and
the respondents. Generally the personal interview is carried out in a planned manner and is
referred to as ‘structured interview’. This can be done in many forms e.g. door to door or as a
planned formal executive meeting.
Methods of conducting an Personal Interview
A personal interview involves a lot of preparation. Generally an personal interview should go
through the following five/5 stages they are as follows.

7. 7
 Rapport Building
Interviewer should increase the receptiveness of the respondent by making him
believe that his opinions are very useful to the research, and is going to be a pleasure rather than
an ordeal.
 Introduction
An introduction involves the interviewer identifying himself by giving him his name,
purpose and sponsorship if any. An introductory letter goes a long way in conveying the study’s
legitimacy.
 Probing
Probing is the technique of encouraging the respondents to answer completely, freely
and relevantly.
 Recording
The interviewer can either write the response at the time of interview or after the
interview. In certain cases, where the respondent allows for it, audio or visual aids can be used to
record answers.
2. Telephone Interview
Telephone interview the information is collected from the respondent by asking him
questions on the phone is called as telephone interview. The combination of telephone and
computer has made this method even more popular.
1. Focus Group Interview
 Focus group interview is an unstructured interview which involves a moderator leading a
discussion between a small group of respondents on a specific topic.
 Focus group interview results in advantages summed up as 10 S. they as follow.
 Synergism
 Snowballing etc.

8. 8
2. Depth Interview
Depth interview is nondirective in nature where the respondent is given freedom to
answer within the boundaries of the topic of interest.
3. Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques involve the presentation of an ambiguous, unstructured object,
activity or person that a respondent is asked to interpret and explain.
Advantages of Interview Method
1. Opportunity for Feedback – Interviewer can provide direct feedback to the respondent,
give clarifications and help alleviate any misconceptions or apprehensions over
confidentiality that the respondent may have in answering the interviewer’s questions
2. Probing Complex Answers – Interviewers can probe if the respondent’s answer is too
brief or unclear. This gives interviewers some flexibility in dealing with unstructured
questions and is especially suited for handling complex questions
3. Length of Interview – If the questionnaire is very lengthy, the personal interview is the
best technique for getting respondents to cooperate, without overtaxing their patience
4. Complete Questionnaires – Personalensures ensure that the respondent will answer all
questions asked, unlike in telephone interview where the respondent may hang up or in mail
questionnaire where some questions may go unanswered
5. Props & Visual Aids – Interviewers have the opportunity of showing respondents items such as
sample products, graphs and sketches,which can aid in their answers
Disadvantages ofInterview Method
1. Cost – Personal interviews are usually more expensive than mail, telephone and internet
surveys. Factors influencing the cost of the interview include the respondents’ geographic
proximity, the length and complexity of the questionnaire, and the number of non-
respondents.
2. Lack of Anonymity – Respondents are not anonymous in a personal (face-to-face)
interview and may be reluctant to disclose certain information to the interviewer. Hence,

9. 9
considerable must be expended by the interviewer when dealing with sensitive questions
to avoid bias effects on the respondent’s part.
3. Necessity for Callbacks – When a person selected for interview cannot be reached the
first time, a callback has to be scheduled which result in extra cost and time spent.
4. Variance Effects – It has been shown that the demographic characteristics of the
interviewer can influence the answers of the respondents. In one study, male interviewers
had a much larger variance of answers than female interviewers in a sample of most
female individuals
5. Dishonesty – Interviewers cheat to make their life easier and save time and effort
Conclusion
 So we can use the interview technique as one of the data collection methods for the
research.
 It makes the researcher to feel that the data what he collected is true and honest and
original by nature because of the face to face interaction.
Observation
 Observation is the recording of the behavior of the sample.
 Researcher relies on his or her own powers of observation what he or she has witnessed
rather than communicating with people in order to obtain information what they say or
think about issues.
Types of observation
 Participant versus Non-participant
 Direct versus indirect
 Disguised versus undisguised
 Structured versus unstructured
 Human versus mechanical

10. 10
Participant versus Non-participant
 Participant observation: the researcher/observer joins a group and observes their
activities, while at the same time taking care to observe what is going on
 Non-participant observation: the researcher/observer simply observes the activities, but
doesn’t take part in them
Directversus Indirect
 Direct observation: observing behavior as it occurs
 Indirect observation: observing the effects or results of the behavior rather than the
behavior itself
Disguisedversus Undisguised
 Disguised observation: subject is unaware that he or she is being observed.
 Undisguised observation: respondent is aware of observation.
Structured versus Unstructured
 Structured observation: researcher identifies beforehand which behaviors are to be
observed and recorded.
 Unstructured observation: no restriction is placed on what the observer would note: all
behavior in the episode under study is monitored.
Human versus Mechanical
 Human observation: observer is a person hired by the researcher, or, perhaps the
observer is the researcher.
 Mechanical observation: human observer is replaced with some form of static observing
device.

11. 11
Advantages of Observation
 Collect data where and when an event or activity is occurring.
 Does not rely on people’s willingness to provide information.
 Directly see what people do rather than relying on what they say they do.
DisadvantagesofObservation
 Susceptible to observer bias.
 Observer’s paradox: people usually perform better when they know they are being
observed.
 Does not increase understanding of why people behave the way they do.
Rating Scales
 A rating scale is a measuring instrument that requires the rater or observer to assign a
rated object to categories or continua that have numerals assigned to them.
 A rating scale is a measuring instrument that requires the rater or observer to assign a
rated object to categories or continua that have numerals assigned to them.
Types of rating scales
All rating scales can be classified into one or two of three types:
 Descriptive rating scales
 Numerical rating scales
 Graphical rating scales
 Comparative rating scales

12. 12
Descriptive rating scales
In this descriptive terms or phrases are assigned to each trail. The rater enters the appropriate
phrases after each name to indicate judgement of the person.
Numerical rating scales
In which numbers are assigned to each trait. If it is a seven point scale, the number 7 represents
the maximum amount of that trait in the individual and 4 represents the average. The rater
merely enters the appropriate number after each name to indicate judgment of the person.
Graphical rating scales
A straight line may be represented by descriptive phrases at various points. To rate the subject
for a particular trait a check mark is made at the particular point.
Comparative rating scales
A comparative scale is an ordinal or rank order scale that can also be referred to as a
nonmetric scale. Respondents evaluate two or more objects at one time and objects are directly
compared with one another as part of the measuring process.
Characteristics ofrating scales
 These are value judgements about attributes of one person by another person.
 These are most commonly used tools to carry out structured observations.
 These are generally developed to make qualitative judgement about qualitative attributes.
 Provide more flexibility to judge the level of performance.
Advantages of rating scales
• Easy to administer and score.
• Wide range of application
• Graphic rating scale is easier to make and less time consuming.
• Easily used for large group.

13. 13
Disadvantagesof rating scales
• It is difficult to fix up rating about many aspects of an individual.
• Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.
• There are chances of subjective evaluation, thus the scales may become unscientific and
unreliable.
Difference betweenQuestionnaire, interview, observationand rating scale
Sr.No
Questionnaire Interview Observation
1.
Questionnaire implies a form
consisting of a series of
written or printed multiple
choice questions, to be marked
by the informants.
Interview is a formal conversation
between the interviewer and
respondent wherein the two
participates in the question answer
session.
Observation, as the name
implies refers to situations
where participants are
observed from a safe
distance and their activities
are recorded minutely.
2.
Questionnaires are in written
form.
Interview is in oral form. It is a time consuming
method of data collection
3.
The nature of questionnaire
is objective type.
The nature of interview is
objective type.
It is recorded data.
4.
Questionnaire provides
factual information.
Interview provides analytical
information.
Covert research - the fact
that they are observed is not
known to the participants
5. Cannot be changed, as they
are written in an appropriate
sequence.
Can be changed as per need and
preference.
overt - the participants are
informed about the
observation taking place

14. 14
Why it is important to know about methodology?
In writing about your research when you have completed the project you need an
explanation of your methodology so that others can understand the significance of what you have
done and make sense of how it all worked. The methodology piece says why you did what you
did. It also enables you to write about what you did not do and why, and about the weaknesses or
limitations of your project as well as its strengths. Every research has a limitation of some sort
and it is perfectly acceptable to identify the weaknesses of your own study.
Reference
 Singh, A.K. (1997). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences.
Patna: Bharati Bhawan.
 1. Shaughnessy, J.J., Zechmeister, E.B. & Zechmeister, J.S. (2006). Research Methods in
Psychology. (7th edition). Singapore: McGraw-Hill.