This document discusses magnetic random access memory (MRAM) which is a new non-volatile memory technology that retains memory even when power is removed. MRAM has advantages over existing memory technologies like DRAM in that it is fast, dense, low power, and non-volatile. MRAM uses magnetic tunnel junctions to store data using the magnetic orientation of each memory cell rather than electrical charge. This allows MRAM to instantly turn on computers without a boot process, like how televisions power on instantly. IBM and Infineon are working to commercialize MRAM within 4 years to replace DRAM and enable instant-on computing.
MRAM is a type of non-volatile memory that uses magnetism instead of electricity to store data. It has the potential for unlimited read/write endurance, high speed performance, and lower power consumption compared to other RAM technologies. MRAM uses magnetic tunnel junctions consisting of two ferromagnetic plates separated by an insulator, where one plate's magnetization represents a 1 and the other a 0. Over time, MRAM development has improved switching speed and density, with multi-Mbit demonstration chips produced in the 2000s and research continuing on thermal assisted switching and spin torque transfer to enable smaller geometries.
MRAM stands for Magneto resistive Random Access Memory. It uses magnetic fields rather than electrical charges to store and randomly access data in a non-volatile manner, keeping information even when power is turned off. MRAM has the potential to replace SRAM, DRAM and Flash memory by offering read and write speeds that are faster than Flash but slower than SRAM and DRAM, while also being non-volatile like Flash. An MRAM bit cell consists of two ferromagnetic layers separated by an insulating tunnel barrier, and data is written and read via the magnetic orientation of the layers.
At a time when the end of Moore's Law is imminent, the quest for a suitable alternative finds a possible destination at Spintronicsl trlying on the spin of an electron instead of its charge. Magnetoresistive RAM uses electron spin and associated magnetic moment for memory purposes.
MRAM promises to be the Holy Grail of the memory world, promising features like amazingly high endurance, low power, non volatility, reduced read and write times, among many others.
for presenting students only:)
a clear concept and useful for 10 minute presentation.
images that helps you to discribe the slides.
have fun:) keep remember that this is basic concepts so i preffer it for MCA andCE students only. thank you.
This document discusses STT-RAM (Spin Transfer Torque Random Access Memory) as a potential new memory technology. It provides an overview of STT-RAM, including its basic components and operation. STT-RAM has characteristics that could allow it to replace existing memory technologies. However, maintaining thermal stability while reducing write energy is a key challenge. Recent research has proposed techniques to improve STT-RAM's performance and energy efficiency to help address this challenge and bring STT-RAM closer to being a universal memory.
MRAM PPT BY MD ASIF (Jamia millia islamia new delhi)MDASIF120
This presentation provides an overview of magnetic random access memory (MRAM). It begins with an introduction to MRAM and its advantages over other memory technologies. It then discusses the basic principles of magnetism-based memory storage. It covers early magnetic core RAM technology as well as more modern approaches like giant magnetoresistance and tunnel magnetoresistance. The presentation explains how MRAM works, including its fixed layer, reading and writing processes, and characteristics. It compares MRAM to other RAM technologies like DRAM and SRAM. In closing, it discusses future improvements and the current status of MRAM technology.
Random access memory, or RAM, is a hardware device that allows information to be stored and retrieved on a computer. RAM is volatile memory, meaning it does not retain data when power is turned off. There are two main types of RAM: static RAM (SRAM) which is faster but more expensive, and dynamic RAM (DRAM) which is slower but less expensive and more commonly used. RAM is used for temporary storage and working space for the operating system and applications, and its data can be accessed in any order, giving it its name random access memory.
This document provides an overview of MRAM (Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory) technology. It discusses how MRAM uses magnetization to store data non-volatility and can offer fast write speeds, low power consumption, and unlimited write endurance compared to other non-volatile memories like flash. The document traces the development of MRAM from early AMR (Anisotropic Magnetoresistance) materials to later GMR (Giant Magnetoresistance) and SDT (Spin Dependent Tunneling) materials which improved signal levels and scaling. It also covers cell designs, reading/writing methods, competing technologies, applications and commercialization opportunities for MRAM.
MRAM is a type of non-volatile memory that uses magnetism instead of electricity to store data. It has the potential for unlimited read/write endurance, high speed performance, and lower power consumption compared to other RAM technologies. MRAM uses magnetic tunnel junctions consisting of two ferromagnetic plates separated by an insulator, where one plate's magnetization represents a 1 and the other a 0. Over time, MRAM development has improved switching speed and density, with multi-Mbit demonstration chips produced in the 2000s and research continuing on thermal assisted switching and spin torque transfer to enable smaller geometries.
MRAM stands for Magneto resistive Random Access Memory. It uses magnetic fields rather than electrical charges to store and randomly access data in a non-volatile manner, keeping information even when power is turned off. MRAM has the potential to replace SRAM, DRAM and Flash memory by offering read and write speeds that are faster than Flash but slower than SRAM and DRAM, while also being non-volatile like Flash. An MRAM bit cell consists of two ferromagnetic layers separated by an insulating tunnel barrier, and data is written and read via the magnetic orientation of the layers.
At a time when the end of Moore's Law is imminent, the quest for a suitable alternative finds a possible destination at Spintronicsl trlying on the spin of an electron instead of its charge. Magnetoresistive RAM uses electron spin and associated magnetic moment for memory purposes.
MRAM promises to be the Holy Grail of the memory world, promising features like amazingly high endurance, low power, non volatility, reduced read and write times, among many others.
for presenting students only:)
a clear concept and useful for 10 minute presentation.
images that helps you to discribe the slides.
have fun:) keep remember that this is basic concepts so i preffer it for MCA andCE students only. thank you.
This document discusses STT-RAM (Spin Transfer Torque Random Access Memory) as a potential new memory technology. It provides an overview of STT-RAM, including its basic components and operation. STT-RAM has characteristics that could allow it to replace existing memory technologies. However, maintaining thermal stability while reducing write energy is a key challenge. Recent research has proposed techniques to improve STT-RAM's performance and energy efficiency to help address this challenge and bring STT-RAM closer to being a universal memory.
MRAM PPT BY MD ASIF (Jamia millia islamia new delhi)MDASIF120
This presentation provides an overview of magnetic random access memory (MRAM). It begins with an introduction to MRAM and its advantages over other memory technologies. It then discusses the basic principles of magnetism-based memory storage. It covers early magnetic core RAM technology as well as more modern approaches like giant magnetoresistance and tunnel magnetoresistance. The presentation explains how MRAM works, including its fixed layer, reading and writing processes, and characteristics. It compares MRAM to other RAM technologies like DRAM and SRAM. In closing, it discusses future improvements and the current status of MRAM technology.
Random access memory, or RAM, is a hardware device that allows information to be stored and retrieved on a computer. RAM is volatile memory, meaning it does not retain data when power is turned off. There are two main types of RAM: static RAM (SRAM) which is faster but more expensive, and dynamic RAM (DRAM) which is slower but less expensive and more commonly used. RAM is used for temporary storage and working space for the operating system and applications, and its data can be accessed in any order, giving it its name random access memory.
This document provides an overview of MRAM (Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory) technology. It discusses how MRAM uses magnetization to store data non-volatility and can offer fast write speeds, low power consumption, and unlimited write endurance compared to other non-volatile memories like flash. The document traces the development of MRAM from early AMR (Anisotropic Magnetoresistance) materials to later GMR (Giant Magnetoresistance) and SDT (Spin Dependent Tunneling) materials which improved signal levels and scaling. It also covers cell designs, reading/writing methods, competing technologies, applications and commercialization opportunities for MRAM.
Resistive RAMs are non-volatile RAMs and with the help of Nanomaterials we can make them faster in switching speed,smaller in size and store information in "Terabit" scale or more.In a nutshell "a revolution in the market of memory devices".
This document discusses giant magnetoresistance (GMR) in magnetic multilayer systems. It begins by introducing the discovery of GMR in 1988 and describes how the resistance of these systems depends on whether the magnetic moments of adjacent ferromagnetic layers are parallel or antiparallel. The rest of the document presents a model for understanding GMR using the Boltzmann equation approach. It describes how the resistance changes when an external magnetic field switches the layers from an antiparallel to parallel configuration.
IEEE presentation based on Spintronics & its semiconductor application specifically.
In the conclusion there is a hyperlink of a video which i'm unable to put here and hence i will give you the address of the video so that you can use the video and make the same hyperlink as i had made here.
TEDxCaltech-David Awschalom - Spintronics ( On YouTube)
video : 6:21- 7:13 (in video)
This document discusses spintronics, which uses the spin of electrons rather than just their charge. Spintronic devices could offer higher speeds, lower power consumption, and new functionalities compared to conventional electronics. Spintronics relies on magnetic materials and the spin states of electrons. One example is giant magnetoresistance (GMR), where the resistance depends on the spin configuration of adjacent magnetic layers. Potential applications include spin-polarized field effect transistors and magnetic random access memory (MRAM), which could provide non-volatile memory with faster speeds and lower costs than existing technologies. Overall, spintronics may lead to new devices and quantum computing approaches that significantly advance information technology.
This document provides an overview of RAM (random access memory). It describes RAM as volatile memory that does not retain data when power is turned off. The document then discusses RAM components like SRAM and DRAM. SRAM stores bits using a flip-flop circuit that retains data as long as power is applied, while DRAM uses a capacitor and transistor that must be regularly refreshed to maintain its charge and data. The document concludes with a comparison of SRAM and DRAM, noting key differences in their data volatility, refresh needs, cell structures, speeds and costs.
Here is a slide on Random Access Memory, slide consists of detailed presentation on primary Memory,types and history of RAM. Hope you will Enjoy the slide.
Spintronics utilizes the spin property of electrons to carry information. It offers advantages over traditional electronics like lower power consumption and greater density. Key developments include the giant magnetoresistance effect, spin transistors, and magnetic random access memory (MRAM). Continued research aims to better inject, manipulate, and detect electron spin in semiconductors for applications in memory and logic devices.
1. Phase change memory (PCM) uses reversible phase changes in chalcogenide glass to store information as amorphous or crystalline states, allowing fast switching between high and low resistance states.
2. PCM provides attributes of RAM, NOR flash, and NAND flash by being byte-addressable, faster than flash, and non-volatile like flash. It is being developed as a replacement for flash memory.
3. A basic PCM cell consists of an access transistor and a programmable element made of chalcogenide glass that can be switched between amorphous and crystalline phases using electric pulses to change resistance and store data.
Shape Memory Alloy is one type of Smart Material.It can Remember its Original Shape.It has 2 way memory,i.e:- it can Remember 2 Shape,one in Low temperature and other in high temperature.
This document outlines the evolution of spintronics and its applications. It discusses how spintronics was developed to address limitations of Moore's Law, including heat generation and quantum effects at small scales. Giant magnetoresistance was discovered, allowing development of technologies like hard disk drives, magnetic tunnel junctions, and magnetic random access memory. These applications leverage the spin-dependent scattering of electrons in ferromagnetic materials to provide non-volatile data storage and sensing capabilities with advantages in speed, cost and capacity compared to traditional electronics. Spintronics continues to be explored for three-dimensional memory architectures like race track memory.
This document presents a seminar on spintronics. Spintronics is an emerging technology that uses the intrinsic spin of electrons in addition to their charge. It was motivated by limitations of Moore's law and offers higher speeds and lower power consumption than conventional electronics. The document describes key concepts such as giant magnetoresistance and spin valves. It provides examples of spintronic applications including hard drives, magnetic RAM, and spin transistors. Advantages of spintronics include low power use, less heat dissipation, and non-volatile memory. The future of spintronics includes higher capacity hard drives and further research integration into microelectronics.
This document discusses spintronics as an emerging technology that utilizes the spin of electrons rather than just their charge. Spintronic devices could offer higher integration density, higher speeds and lower power consumption compared to conventional electronics. Some key advantages of spintronics include non-volatility of magnetic storage and the ability to combine logic and storage functions. The document outlines several spintronic effects and devices such as giant magnetoresistance, spin valves, and magnetic random access memory. It concludes that while spintronics may not replace electronics entirely, it could lead to new devices combining different functionalities and help push computing to quantum levels.
The document discusses Ovonic Unified Memory (OUM), a promising emerging non-volatile memory technology that uses a reversible phase change in chalcogenide materials to store data. OUM offers advantages over existing memory technologies like DRAM, SRAM, and flash memory by allowing higher density stacking and greater endurance. The document provides background on the history and development of OUM, which was originally explored in the 1960s and offers potential to address scaling limitations of other memory technologies.
The document provides information about spintronics, which is an emerging field that utilizes the spin of electrons rather than just their charge. It discusses how spintronics works on the principle of manipulating the spin of electrons using magnetic fields, offering advantages like non-volatility and low power. Key effects and devices in spintronics discussed include giant magnetoresistance, spin valves, magnetic random access memory, spin transistors, and tunnel magnetoresistance. The document also outlines some applications of spintronics, advantages over conventional electronics, current limitations, and future demands and directions for the field.
Micro manufacturing involves processes used to fabricate micro components or create micro features on parts. Some key micro manufacturing processes include diamond turning, laser welding, and micro drilling. Diamond turning can machine microgrooves as small as 2.5 μm wide by 1.6 μm deep. Laser beam welding comes in two types: surface heating and through transmission infrared welding. Nano manufacturing deals with even smaller scales down to 1 nanometer. Approaches include top-down methods like focused beam lithography and nanoimprint lithography as well as bottom-up methods such as chemical vapor deposition and dip pen lithography. These techniques have applications in precision manufacturing of devices used in areas like semiconductor fabrication, medical devices, and more.
Electron beam machining (EBM) involves directing a high-velocity beam of electrons in a vacuum chamber to melt or vaporize material from a workpiece. The electron beam is generated in a gun and focused onto a small spot on the workpiece using magnetic coils. This localized heating allows for precise material removal with minimal heat effects. EBM can machine nearly any material and produces close tolerances, but requires expensive equipment and vacuum systems. Common applications include machining wire drawing dies and manufacturing semiconductor and optical components.
1. The document discusses different types of magnetism, including ferromagnetism.
2. Ferromagnetism is described as the strongest type of magnetism, which is why it is used in many technological devices. Everyday examples include refrigerator magnets.
3. Ferromagnetic materials become magnetic due to the alignment of electron spins within the material. At temperatures above the Curie point, the electron spins become disordered and the material loses its magnetism.
Compact modeling of perpendicular anisotropy co feb mgo mtjakushwah13
This compact model summarizes the key physical behaviors of perpendicular-anisotropy CoFeB/MgO magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) switched by spin transfer torques (STTs). The model integrates physical models of static resistance, bias-dependent tunnel magnetoresistance, critical switching current, switching dynamics, and thermal fluctuations. It is programmed in Verilog-A for compatibility with computer-aided design tools to simulate MTJ/CMOS hybrid circuits and optimize designs for performance metrics like speed, power and reliability. Experimental parameters are included to improve agreement between simulations and measurements.
The document encourages sharing a message about gratitude for what we have and avoiding wasting food and water. It suggests praying for those suffering from poverty and hunger around the world. It includes a 1994 photo from a Pulitzer Prize and asks readers to continue sharing the message with others.
Resistive RAMs are non-volatile RAMs and with the help of Nanomaterials we can make them faster in switching speed,smaller in size and store information in "Terabit" scale or more.In a nutshell "a revolution in the market of memory devices".
This document discusses giant magnetoresistance (GMR) in magnetic multilayer systems. It begins by introducing the discovery of GMR in 1988 and describes how the resistance of these systems depends on whether the magnetic moments of adjacent ferromagnetic layers are parallel or antiparallel. The rest of the document presents a model for understanding GMR using the Boltzmann equation approach. It describes how the resistance changes when an external magnetic field switches the layers from an antiparallel to parallel configuration.
IEEE presentation based on Spintronics & its semiconductor application specifically.
In the conclusion there is a hyperlink of a video which i'm unable to put here and hence i will give you the address of the video so that you can use the video and make the same hyperlink as i had made here.
TEDxCaltech-David Awschalom - Spintronics ( On YouTube)
video : 6:21- 7:13 (in video)
This document discusses spintronics, which uses the spin of electrons rather than just their charge. Spintronic devices could offer higher speeds, lower power consumption, and new functionalities compared to conventional electronics. Spintronics relies on magnetic materials and the spin states of electrons. One example is giant magnetoresistance (GMR), where the resistance depends on the spin configuration of adjacent magnetic layers. Potential applications include spin-polarized field effect transistors and magnetic random access memory (MRAM), which could provide non-volatile memory with faster speeds and lower costs than existing technologies. Overall, spintronics may lead to new devices and quantum computing approaches that significantly advance information technology.
This document provides an overview of RAM (random access memory). It describes RAM as volatile memory that does not retain data when power is turned off. The document then discusses RAM components like SRAM and DRAM. SRAM stores bits using a flip-flop circuit that retains data as long as power is applied, while DRAM uses a capacitor and transistor that must be regularly refreshed to maintain its charge and data. The document concludes with a comparison of SRAM and DRAM, noting key differences in their data volatility, refresh needs, cell structures, speeds and costs.
Here is a slide on Random Access Memory, slide consists of detailed presentation on primary Memory,types and history of RAM. Hope you will Enjoy the slide.
Spintronics utilizes the spin property of electrons to carry information. It offers advantages over traditional electronics like lower power consumption and greater density. Key developments include the giant magnetoresistance effect, spin transistors, and magnetic random access memory (MRAM). Continued research aims to better inject, manipulate, and detect electron spin in semiconductors for applications in memory and logic devices.
1. Phase change memory (PCM) uses reversible phase changes in chalcogenide glass to store information as amorphous or crystalline states, allowing fast switching between high and low resistance states.
2. PCM provides attributes of RAM, NOR flash, and NAND flash by being byte-addressable, faster than flash, and non-volatile like flash. It is being developed as a replacement for flash memory.
3. A basic PCM cell consists of an access transistor and a programmable element made of chalcogenide glass that can be switched between amorphous and crystalline phases using electric pulses to change resistance and store data.
Shape Memory Alloy is one type of Smart Material.It can Remember its Original Shape.It has 2 way memory,i.e:- it can Remember 2 Shape,one in Low temperature and other in high temperature.
This document outlines the evolution of spintronics and its applications. It discusses how spintronics was developed to address limitations of Moore's Law, including heat generation and quantum effects at small scales. Giant magnetoresistance was discovered, allowing development of technologies like hard disk drives, magnetic tunnel junctions, and magnetic random access memory. These applications leverage the spin-dependent scattering of electrons in ferromagnetic materials to provide non-volatile data storage and sensing capabilities with advantages in speed, cost and capacity compared to traditional electronics. Spintronics continues to be explored for three-dimensional memory architectures like race track memory.
This document presents a seminar on spintronics. Spintronics is an emerging technology that uses the intrinsic spin of electrons in addition to their charge. It was motivated by limitations of Moore's law and offers higher speeds and lower power consumption than conventional electronics. The document describes key concepts such as giant magnetoresistance and spin valves. It provides examples of spintronic applications including hard drives, magnetic RAM, and spin transistors. Advantages of spintronics include low power use, less heat dissipation, and non-volatile memory. The future of spintronics includes higher capacity hard drives and further research integration into microelectronics.
This document discusses spintronics as an emerging technology that utilizes the spin of electrons rather than just their charge. Spintronic devices could offer higher integration density, higher speeds and lower power consumption compared to conventional electronics. Some key advantages of spintronics include non-volatility of magnetic storage and the ability to combine logic and storage functions. The document outlines several spintronic effects and devices such as giant magnetoresistance, spin valves, and magnetic random access memory. It concludes that while spintronics may not replace electronics entirely, it could lead to new devices combining different functionalities and help push computing to quantum levels.
The document discusses Ovonic Unified Memory (OUM), a promising emerging non-volatile memory technology that uses a reversible phase change in chalcogenide materials to store data. OUM offers advantages over existing memory technologies like DRAM, SRAM, and flash memory by allowing higher density stacking and greater endurance. The document provides background on the history and development of OUM, which was originally explored in the 1960s and offers potential to address scaling limitations of other memory technologies.
The document provides information about spintronics, which is an emerging field that utilizes the spin of electrons rather than just their charge. It discusses how spintronics works on the principle of manipulating the spin of electrons using magnetic fields, offering advantages like non-volatility and low power. Key effects and devices in spintronics discussed include giant magnetoresistance, spin valves, magnetic random access memory, spin transistors, and tunnel magnetoresistance. The document also outlines some applications of spintronics, advantages over conventional electronics, current limitations, and future demands and directions for the field.
Micro manufacturing involves processes used to fabricate micro components or create micro features on parts. Some key micro manufacturing processes include diamond turning, laser welding, and micro drilling. Diamond turning can machine microgrooves as small as 2.5 μm wide by 1.6 μm deep. Laser beam welding comes in two types: surface heating and through transmission infrared welding. Nano manufacturing deals with even smaller scales down to 1 nanometer. Approaches include top-down methods like focused beam lithography and nanoimprint lithography as well as bottom-up methods such as chemical vapor deposition and dip pen lithography. These techniques have applications in precision manufacturing of devices used in areas like semiconductor fabrication, medical devices, and more.
Electron beam machining (EBM) involves directing a high-velocity beam of electrons in a vacuum chamber to melt or vaporize material from a workpiece. The electron beam is generated in a gun and focused onto a small spot on the workpiece using magnetic coils. This localized heating allows for precise material removal with minimal heat effects. EBM can machine nearly any material and produces close tolerances, but requires expensive equipment and vacuum systems. Common applications include machining wire drawing dies and manufacturing semiconductor and optical components.
1. The document discusses different types of magnetism, including ferromagnetism.
2. Ferromagnetism is described as the strongest type of magnetism, which is why it is used in many technological devices. Everyday examples include refrigerator magnets.
3. Ferromagnetic materials become magnetic due to the alignment of electron spins within the material. At temperatures above the Curie point, the electron spins become disordered and the material loses its magnetism.
Compact modeling of perpendicular anisotropy co feb mgo mtjakushwah13
This compact model summarizes the key physical behaviors of perpendicular-anisotropy CoFeB/MgO magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) switched by spin transfer torques (STTs). The model integrates physical models of static resistance, bias-dependent tunnel magnetoresistance, critical switching current, switching dynamics, and thermal fluctuations. It is programmed in Verilog-A for compatibility with computer-aided design tools to simulate MTJ/CMOS hybrid circuits and optimize designs for performance metrics like speed, power and reliability. Experimental parameters are included to improve agreement between simulations and measurements.
The document encourages sharing a message about gratitude for what we have and avoiding wasting food and water. It suggests praying for those suffering from poverty and hunger around the world. It includes a 1994 photo from a Pulitzer Prize and asks readers to continue sharing the message with others.
This document discusses the history and working of spin transfer torque RAM (STT-RAM). STT-RAM is a type of non-volatile memory that uses magnetic tunnel junctions to store data. It provides advantages like high speed, density, low power and reliability compared to other memory technologies. The document describes the key patents and commercial releases in STT-RAM's development. It explains the read, write and refresh operations in STT-RAM and discusses applications, advantages and challenges of this memory technology.
Qdr infini band products technical presentationxKinAnx
The document summarizes Sun Microsystems' InfiniBand product portfolio, including their Sun Constellation supercomputing platform, InfiniBand switches, and host channel adapters. Their flagship products are the Sun Datacenter InfiniBand Switch 648, which supports up to 648 ports in a single switch, and the Sun Blade 6048 InfiniBand QDR Switched NEM, which connects 12 server blades within a single chassis and supports cluster topologies.
An electromagnetic bomb, or E-bomb, is a weapon that generates a powerful electromagnetic pulse capable of disabling electronics over a wide area without harming people. It works by using an explosively-pumped flux compression generator or high power microwave device to generate an intense electromagnetic burst. This electromagnetic pulse induces damaging voltages in exposed wiring and circuitry. While an E-bomb could knock out power grids and communication systems across an entire coast, it has limitations in accuracy and risks harming medical equipment. There is ongoing research focused on developing more advanced E-bomb technologies and defenses against electromagnetic weapons.
This document provides an overview of biometrics technologies. It begins with an introduction to biometrics and then discusses the history of biometrics from ancient Egyptians and Chinese using fingerprints to modern systems being developed in the 1970s. The document outlines key characteristics biometrics must have such as universality and permanence. It then classifies and describes various biometric technologies including fingerprint, face, iris, voice, and signature recognition. Application examples are presented for areas like gaming, television control, and accessibility switches. The document concludes that biometrics provide a user-friendly way to interact with devices without passwords while continuing to develop as an emerging field.
The Xbox is a video gaming brand series created by Microsoft.
in the sixth to eighth generations, as well as applications , streaming services, and the online service.
This document discusses Mobile IP, which allows mobile devices to change their point of attachment between different networks while maintaining ongoing connections. It describes the key entities in Mobile IP including the Mobile Node, Home Agent, Foreign Agent, and Correspondent Node. The operations of Mobile IP are summarized, including agent discovery, registration processes, encapsulation and decapsulation of packets, and the tables maintained on routers. Problems with Mobile IP and its applications are also briefly mentioned.
The document summarizes the key characteristics and applications of Blu-ray disc technology. Blu-ray discs have a much higher storage capacity than DVDs, can store high-definition video and large amounts of data. They have strong copy protection, are durable, and can record and play back high-definition content like movies and television broadcasts in their original high quality. Blu-ray discs are also used for mass data storage and archiving high-definition video from camcorders.
This document provides an introduction to neural networks, including their basic components and types. It discusses neurons, activation functions, different types of neural networks based on connection type, topology, and learning methods. It also covers applications of neural networks in areas like pattern recognition and control systems. Neural networks have advantages like the ability to learn from experience and handle incomplete information, but also disadvantages like the need for training and high processing times for large networks. In conclusion, neural networks can provide more human-like artificial intelligence by taking approximation and hard-coded reactions out of AI design, though they still require fine-tuning.
This document discusses the seminar method of teaching. It defines a seminar as involving guided interaction among a group on different aspects of a topic presented by members. The objectives of seminars are to develop higher cognitive and affective abilities in participants. Seminars are classified based on their size and scope. The roles of organizers, chairperson, speakers and participants are outlined. Requirements for conducting seminars and the functions of the teacher in guiding seminars are also described.
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the industrial, scientific and medical radio bands. It allows for the replacement of cables that traditionally connect devices, enabling devices such as phones, laptops, printers, digital cameras, and video game controllers to establish short-range radio links to connect and exchange information. Bluetooth technology works as a universal bridge between existing data networks and provides a mechanism for devices to form short-term networks when in close proximity without needing to be part of a permanent network infrastructure.
This document provides an overview of security and hacking. It defines security as protection from harm and defines differences between security and protection. It then discusses what hacking and hackers are, provides a brief history of hacking from the 1960s to present day, and describes different types of hackers like white hat and black hat hackers. The document also outlines the hacking process and some common tools used. It lists some famous hackers and recent news stories about hacking.
Virtual reality is a user interface that involves real-time simulation and interactions through sensory channels to immerse users in virtual environments. It has its origins in flight simulators from the 1950s and early prototypes in the 1960s, with commercial development beginning in the late 1980s. Current applications of VR include movies, video games, and education/training. Emerging technologies like Project Natal, CAVE systems, and the Nintendo Wii are pushing the boundaries of VR by enabling more natural physical interaction. While the future is uncertain, VR is expected to continue evolving entertainment and other industries through immersive experiences.
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Researchers have always tried to build a device capable of seeing people through walls. However, previous efforts to develop such a system have involved the use of expensive and bulky radar technology that uses a part of the electromagnetic spectrum only available to the military. Now a system is being developed by Dina Katabi and Fadel Adib, could give all of us the ability to spot people in different rooms using low-cost Wi-Fi technology. The device is low-power, portable and simple enough for anyone to use, to give people the ability to see through walls and closed doors. The system, called “Wi-Vi,” stands for "Wi-Fi" and "vision." is based on a concept similar to radar and sonar imaging. But in contrast to radar and sonar, it transmits a low-power Wi-Fi signal and uses its reflections to track moving humans. It can do so even if the humans are in closed rooms or hiding behind a wall.
Simple definition for Wi-Vi is, as a Wi-Fi signal is transmitted at a wall, a portion of the signal penetrates through it, reflecting off any humans on the other side. However, only a tiny fraction of the signal makes it through to the other room, with the rest being reflected by the wall, or by other objects. Wi-Vi cancels out all these other reflections, and keeps only those from the moving human body. Previous work demonstrated that the subtle reflections of wireless inter signals bouncing off a human could be used to track that person's movements, but those previous experiments either required that a wireless router was already in the room of the person being tracked. Wi-Fi signals and recent advances in MIMO communications are used to build a device that can capture the motion of humans behind a wall and in closed rooms. Law enforcement personnel can use the device to avoid walking into an ambush, and minimize casualties in standoffs and hostage situations. Emergency responders can use it to see through rubble and collapsed structures. Ordinary users can leverage the device for gaming, intrusion detection, privacy-enhanced monitoring of children and elderly, or personal security when stepping into dark alleys and unknown places.
The concept underlying seeing through opaque obstacles is similar to radar and sonar imaging. Specifically, when faced with a non-metallic wall, a fraction of the RF signal would traverse the wall, reflect off objects and humans, and come back imprinted with a signature of what is inside a closed room. By capturing these reflections, we can image objects behind a wall.
Wi-Vi is a see-through-wall technology that is low-bandwidth, low-power, compact, and accessible to non-military entities. Wi-Vi is a see-through-wall device that employs Wi-Fi signals in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
The document discusses proxy servers, specifically HTTP and FTP proxy servers. It defines a proxy server as a server that acts as an intermediary for requests from clients to other servers. It describes the main purposes of proxy servers as keeping machines behind it anonymous for security purposes and speeding up access to resources via caching. It also provides details on the mechanisms, types, protocols (HTTP and FTP), and functions of proxy servers.
This document discusses various types of hacking including black hat hacking, data theft, and common attack methods like SQL injection, DDoS attacks, and social engineering. It outlines hackers' techniques like malware, viruses, worms, and trojans. It also covers security measures like firewalls, antivirus software, and password cracking. Statistics show cybercrime is increasing and costs billions worldwide each year. The document recommends security steps like using strong passwords, antivirus software, firewalls, and monitoring children's computer activities to help prevent attacks.
Semiconductor memories have become essential in electronics as processors have become more common and software more sophisticated, greatly increasing the need for memory. There are several types of semiconductor memory technologies that have emerged to meet different needs, including DRAM, SRAM, SDRAM, EEPROM, flash memory, and the newer MRAM. Each type has its advantages for different applications like main memory, caches, and non-volatile storage.
RAM (random access memory) is a type of volatile memory that can be accessed randomly and stores recently used data and instructions to allow for fast access by the CPU. It consists of small electronic chips mounted on modules that are installed in sockets on the motherboard. Different types of RAM have been developed over time with improved speeds, including DRAM, FPM, EDO, SDRAM, DDR RAM, and Rambus RAM, with later varieties operating at higher clock frequencies in a synchronous manner with the system bus. RAM modules come in various sizes and speeds depending on the memory technology.
This document provides an overview of different types of computer memory devices. It begins by explaining the importance of memory and then outlines the main types which include main memory (RAM and ROM), cache memory, and secondary storage devices. RAM is further divided into DRAM and SRAM. ROM includes PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. Secondary storage includes magnetic devices like hard disks and floppy disks, as well as optical devices like CDs and DVDs. Newer memory technologies like flash memory and Blu-ray disks are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of computer memory (RAM) including its history, types, and technology. RAM temporarily stores information for programs to run and comes in two main types - DRAM and SRAM. The document traces the history of RAM from early technologies like delay lines and magnetic core memory to modern semiconductors. It also describes memory modules like SIMMs, DIMMs, and RIMMs and emerging memory technologies like MRAM and RRAM that could replace conventional RAM.
A computer uses a hierarchy of internal and external memory systems. Internal memory includes RAM, ROM, and cache, which provide fast access but are more expensive per byte. RAM allows independent access to each memory location and is used for main memory. ROM permanently stores data and is used for boot programs. Cached memory uses SRAM for faster access than RAM. External memory includes hard disks and USB drives, which provide large, inexpensive storage but are much slower to access.
https://peoplelaptop.com/difference-between-ram-and-rom/
RAM and ROM:Difference between RAM and ROM in tabular form is given here. Visit now to check the detailed RAM vs ROM difference with their comparisons.
The document discusses different types of computer memory. It describes cache memory as very high speed memory between the CPU and main memory used to store frequently accessed data and programs. Primary/main memory is volatile semiconductor memory that holds currently running programs and data. RAM and ROM are types of main memory. RAM is read/write memory that stores data temporarily while power is on, while ROM is read-only memory that permanently stores basic input/output instructions. The document outlines characteristics and types of each memory including static RAM, dynamic RAM, programmable ROM, erasable programmable ROM, and electrically erasable programmable ROM.
The document provides information about storage devices, including primary storage (RAM, ROM, cache) and secondary storage (hard disk drives). It discusses the components, technologies, and interfaces of hard disks. RAM can be static RAM, dynamic RAM (including FPM, EDO, SDRAM, DDR RAM), or cache memory. ROM includes masked ROM, programmable ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. Errors in memory can be soft errors or hard errors. Secondary storage devices like hard disks use magnetic recording and have components like platters, read/write heads, and error correction codes to ensure data integrity.
The document discusses spintronics and MRAM technology. MRAM is a developing non-volatile memory technology that has rewriting speeds comparable to volatile RAM. It stores data using magnetic charges instead of electrical charges like DRAM. Using MRAM would lead to better power consumption since it requires fewer memory refreshes. If MRAM replaced other non-volatile memory technologies, it could virtually eliminate computer boot-up times by storing the entire software state after a computer is turned off.
The document discusses the basics of semiconductor memories. It explains that memory controllers establish information flow between memory and the CPU. Memory buses connect memory to the controller. Newer systems have frontside and backside buses connecting different components. During boot-up, the BIOS and operating system are loaded from ROM and hard drive into RAM for fast access by the CPU. Applications and files are also loaded into and removed from RAM as needed. The document compares different types of volatile and non-volatile memory in terms of speed, size, and cost.
The document summarizes different types of computer memory. It describes RAM as volatile memory that can be randomly accessed. There are two main types of RAM: DRAM uses capacitors and must be refreshed, while SRAM uses flip-flops and does not need refreshing. The document also discusses cache memory, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory, memory organization, errors and interleaving.
1) Primary computer memory, also known as main memory, is directly accessible to the CPU and stores instructions and data. It is divided into RAM and ROM.
2) RAM can be static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM retains data as long as power is on, while DRAM requires regular refreshing to retain data.
3) ROM types include PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. PROM cannot be erased, EPROM can be erased with UV light, and EEPROM can be electrically erased and rewritten.
RAM, or random access memory, is the internal memory of a CPU that is used to store data, programs, and program results temporarily. It allows for random access of data. RAM is volatile, meaning data is lost when power is removed. There are two main types of RAM: static RAM (SRAM) which does not need to be refreshed but is more expensive, and dynamic RAM (DRAM) which must be refreshed but is cheaper. A limitation of RAM is that it is volatile memory, so all data is lost when power is removed.
The document discusses different types of computer memory. It defines memory as the component that stores instructions and data. There are two main types of memory: primary memory (RAM) that is directly accessed by the CPU, and secondary memory like hard disks. RAM is volatile and temporarily stores data during use, while ROM is non-volatile and stores permanent instructions. The document outlines different RAM technologies like DRAM, SRAM, and MRAM and compares their characteristics. It also discusses cache memory, ROM, flash memory, and CMOS memory.
Memristor is a new electronic component that can serve as both memory and a logic device. It is made of a thin semiconductor film sandwiched between two metal contacts. The resistance of the memristor can be varied by controlling the direction and duration of the electric current passed through it, allowing it to store analog values. Memristors have potential advantages over other memory technologies as they are faster, smaller, cheaper and use less power while providing non-volatile memory. They could replace flash drives and RAM in future computers and enable new applications in areas like medical monitoring and electronic paper.
This document discusses memory classification in the 8085 microprocessor. It describes the main types of memory used - RAM, SRAM, DRAM, PROM, ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. RAM is volatile and used for operating systems and programs. SRAM is static RAM that retains data without power but has low density and is costly. DRAM uses capacitors and refreshing to store dynamic data and has higher density but requires refreshing. PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM can be programmed by the user but differ in how data is erased - PROM by burning, EPROM by UV light, and EEPROM electrically at the register level. ROM is non-volatile and
Memory systems can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary memory includes RAM and ROM. RAM is further divided into static RAM and dynamic RAM. Dynamic RAM includes synchronous DRAM and asynchronous DRAM. The maximum memory size is determined by the processor's address lines. Data is transferred between memory and the processor via memory address and data registers. Random access memory allows direct access to any memory location using its row and column address. Dynamic RAM is the most common memory type, using a transistor and capacitor in each memory cell to store data. Dynamic RAM must be regularly refreshed to prevent data loss from capacitor leakage.
The document discusses different types of computer memory and storage. It describes system clock, which generates electrical signals to control computer functions. It then defines RAM and ROM, the main types of memory. RAM is volatile and used for active programs and data, while ROM is non-volatile and stores permanent instructions. Specific RAM types include DRAM and SRAM, and ROM types are PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. Memory is housed in modules like SIMM, DIMM, and RIMM.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
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1. ABSTRACT
Magnetic RAM (MRAM) is a new memory technology with access and cost
characteristics comparable to those of conventional dynamic RAM (DRAM) and the non-
volatility of magnetic media such as disk. That is MRAM retains its memory even after
removing power from the device. Such a non-volatile memory has important military
applications for missiles and satellites. Clearly such a device could also have important
commercial applications if the non-volatility were accomplished without impacting other
properties of the memory, notably density, read and write speed, and lifetime. IBM in
cooperation with Infineon is promising to launch this new technology ,that will eliminate
the boot-up process of a computer and thus enable it to turn on as instantly as a television
or radio, using memory cells based on magnetic tunnel junctions.
This paper discusses the following aspects in detail: Attractions of this new technology
How MRAM works MRAM Architecture
Magnetic Tunnel Junctions - future of MRAM Challenges faced Anticipated Applications
1.INTRODUCTION
You hit the power button on your television and it instantly comes to life. But do the
same thing with your computer and you have to wait a few minutes while it goes through
its boot up sequence. Why can't we have a computer that turns on as instantly as a
television or radio? IBM, in cooperation with Infineon, is promising to launch a new
technology in the next few years that will eliminate the boot-up process. Magnetic
random access memory (MRAM) has the potential to store more data, access that data
faster and use less power than current memory technologies. The key to MRAM is that,
as its name suggests, it uses magnetism rather than electrical power to store data. This is a
major leap from dynamic RAM (DRAM), the most common type of memory in use
today, which requires a continuous supply of electricity and is terribly inefficient.
Twenty-five years ago, DRAM overtook ferrite core memory in the race to rule the PC
memory market. Now it looks like ferromagnetic technology could be making a
comeback, with IBM Corp. and Infineon Technologies charging a joint team of 80
engineers and scientists with the task of making magnetic RAM (MRAM) a commercial
reality within four years
2. ATTRACTIONS OF THIS NEW TECHNOLOGY
Consider what happens when power goes off while you are typing on your computer?
Unless you are connected to an uninterruptible power supply you lose everything you
were working on since you last saved the document. That's because your computer's
random access memory (RAM), which stores information for fast access, can't function
without power. The same goes for your cellphone and PDA. Both require a battery to
keep the RAM intact with your phone numbers and personal data. But IBM researchers
have developed a new form of RAM â€h magnetic RAM (MRAM) †that doesn't
forget anything when the power goes out.
MRAM promises to be
Cheap
Fast
Nonvolatile
2. Low power alternative
MRAM has these attractions over conventional RAM, which uses electrical cells to store
data, as MRAM uses magnetic cells. This method is similar to the way your hard drive
stores information. When you remove power from your computer, conventional RAM
loses memory, but the data on your hard disk remains intact due to its magnetic
orientation, which represents binary information. Because magnetic memory cells
maintain their state even when power is removed, MRAM possesses a distinct advantage
over electrical.
With DRAM (RAM used in PCs and workstations) you store a charge in a capacitor. That
charge will leak away over time and it needs to be refreshed frequently that takes power.
But with MRAM you have no such problems .You need no power to maintain the state,
and toy only need to pass a small current through the memory to read it.
Compared with SRAM (RAM used to build fast memory, cache) MRAMs are as fast as
SRAM with read/write speeds better than 2.5 nanoseconds. Moreover MRAMs can be
build smaller than SRAM and hence would be cheaper.
Compared to Flash memory(an example for Flash memory is computer's BIOS chip), its
much faster to write on to MRAM.Thus MRAM threatens to replace not only dynamic
RAM, but also Flash memory. (Flash memory is used for easy and fast information
storage in such devices as digital cameras and home video game consoles. In fact, Flash
memory is considered a solid state storage device. Solid state means that there are no
moving parts -- everything is electronic instead of mechanical.)
3. HOW MRAM WORKS
3.1 INSTANT ON COMPUTING
When you turn your computer on, you can hear it revving up. It takes a few minutes
before you can actually get to programs to run. If you just want to browse the Internet,
you have to wait for your computer's start-up sequence to finish before you can go to
your favorite Web sites. You push the computer's power button, there's some beeping and
humming, you see flashes of text on the screen and you count the seconds ticking by. It's
a very slow process. Why can't it simply turn on like your television? - hit a button and
instantly your Internet browser is ready to go. What is it that your computer has to do
when you turn it on.
Every computer has a basic input/output system (BIOS) that performs a series of
functions during the boot up sequence. The series of functions performed by BIOS
includes
A power-on self-test (POST) for all of the different hardware components in the system
to make sure everything is working properly
Activating other BIOS chips on different cards installed in the computer - For example,
SCSI and graphics card often have their own BIOS chips.
Providing a set of low level routines that the operating system uses to interface different
hardware devices
Manage a collection of settings for the hard disks, clock etc
The BIOS is a type of software that your computer needs to function properly. It is
usually stored on a Flash Memory chip on the motherboard, but sometimes the chip is
another type of ROM. Its most important function is to load the computer's operating
system when you turn the computer on. During a cold boot (The start-up of a computer
3. from a powered-down state), the BIOS also checks the RAM by performing a read/write
test of each memory address. The first thing the BIOS does is check the information
stored in a tiny amount of RAM (64 bytes) located on a complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) chip.
MRAM would eliminate the tedium of boot-up because it would use magnetism, rather
than electricity, to store bits of data. MRAM will slowly begin to replace DRAM starting
sometime in 2003. DRAM wastes a lot of electricity because it needs to be supplied with
a constant current to
2003. DRAM wastes a lot of electricity because it needs to be supplied with a constant
current to store bits of data. In a DRAM configuration, a capacitor operates like a small
bucket storing electrons. To store a 1 in a memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons.
To store a 0, the bucket is emptied. DRAM has to be refreshed thousands of times per
second to retain a 1.
3.2 MAGNETIC RAM ARCHITECTURE
Like Flash memory, MRAM is a nonvolatile memory â€L a solid-state chip that has no
moving parts. Unlike with DRAM chips, you don't have to continuously refresh the data
on solid-state chips. Flash memory can't be used for instant-on PCs because it hasn't
demonstrated long-term reliability. MRAM will likely compete with Flash memory in the
portable device market for the same reason that it will replace DRAM - it reduces power
consumption.
In MRAM only a small amount of electricity is needed to store bits of data. This small
amount of electricity switches the polarity of each memory cell on the chip. A memory
cell is created when word lines (rows) and bit lines (columns) on a chip intersect. Each
one of these cells stores a 1 or a 0, representing a piece of data. MRAM promises to
combine the high speed of static RAM (SRAM), the storage capacity of DRAM and the
non-volatility of Flash Memory.
Writing 1
MagRAM Architecture
Here's how MRAM works. Two small magnetic layers separated by a thin insulating
layer make up each memory cell, forming a tiny magnetic "sandwich." Each magnetic
layer behaves like a tiny bar magnet, with a North Pole and South Pole, called a magnetic
"moment." The moments of the two magnetic layers can be aligned either parallel (north
poles pomting in the same direction) or antiparallel (north poles pointing in opposite
directions) to each other. These two states correspond to the binary states â€d the Is and
Os â€O of the memory. The memory writing process aligns the magnetic moments, while
the memory reading process detects the alignment. With MRAM, bits are stored in thin
magnetic layers in the direction of magnetization.
3.2.1 READING DATA
To read the bit of information stored in this memory cell, you must detennine the
orientation of the two magnetic moments. Passing a small electric current directly
through the memory cell accomplishes this. When the moments are parallel, the
4. resistance of the memory cell is smaller than when the moments are not parallel. Even
though there is an insulating layer between the magnetic layers, the insulating layer is so
thin that electrons can "tunnel" through it from one magnetic layer to the other.
3.2.2WRITING DATA
To write to the device, you pass currents through wires close to (but not connected to) the
magnetic cells. Because any current through a wire generates a magnetic field, you can
use this field to change the direction of the magnetic moment. The arrangement of the
wires and cells is called a cross-point architecture: the magnetic junctions are set up along
the intersection points of a grid. Wires â€t called word lines †run in parallel below
the magnetic cells. Another set of wires â€t called bit lines †runs above the magnetic
cells and perpendicular to the set of wires below. Like coordinates on a map, choosing
one particular word line and one particular bit line uniquely specifies one of the memory
cells. To write to a particular cell (bit), a current is passed through the two independent
wires (one above and one below) that intersect at that particular cell. Only the cell at the
cross point of the two wires sees the magnetic fields from both currents and changes
state.
2-D Magnetic Memory Cell Array
MRAM works by etching a grid of criss-crossing wires on a chip in two layersâ€Mwith
the horizontal wires being placed just below the vertical wires. At each intersection, a
"magnetic tunnel junction" (MTJ) is created that serves as a switchâ€" and thus as a
repository for a single bit of memory. The MTJ is essentially a small magnet whose
direction is easily flipped. Common materials for the MTJ include chromium dioxide and
iron-cobalt alloys. Current runs perpendicularly, "tunneling" through the insulator that
separates it from a sheath of copper. At the base of one of the electrodes is a fixed anti-
ferromagnetic layer that creates a strong coupling field. When a magnetic field is applied,
electrons flow from one electrode to another, creating 0 and 1 states.
4.DEVELOPING MRAM
4.1. BACKGROUND
The development of MRAM has been based on a number of significant ideas, over the
past 20 years starting with Cross-tie Random Access Memory (CRAM), and then using
higher sensitive giant magneto resistance (GMR) and Spin Dependent Tunneling (SDT)
materials. A brief background on precursors to magneto resistive random access memory
(MRAM) and then descriptions of cell configurations with improved signal levels
including MRAM cells with GMR materials, cells using SDT structures
Early magnetic random access memory (as opposed to serial memories like tape and
disk) used the natural hysteresis of magnetic materials to store data (T'or "0") by using
two or more current carrying wires or straps. Magnetic elements were arrayed so that
only ones which were to be written received a combination of magnetic fields above a
write threshold, while the other elements in the array did not change storage state. Most
of today's MRAM concepts still use this write technique.
These early memories (mostly magnetic core memories) used inductive signals for
determining the storage state ("1" or "0"). A magnetic field (current) was used to
"interrogate" the memory element, and the polarity of induced voltages in a sensing
5. circuit depended on whether a "1" or "0" was stored. The first to propose a magneto-
resistive readout scheme was Jack Raffled. His scheme stored data in a magnetic body,
which in turn produced a stray magnetic field that could be detected by a separate
magneto resistive sensing element. The concept was not high density because it was
difficult to get a sufficiently large external stray field from a small magnetic storage cell.
This scheme of separating the magnetic storage element from the sensor has similarity
with the schemes recently proposed for magnetized bodies sensed by Hall effect sensors
The first technology which used a magnetic element for storage and also used the same
element for magneto resistance readout was the Cross-tie Cell Random Access Memory
(CRAM). This cell used a slight difference in resistance of the cell depending on the
presence or absence of a Block point to indicate a "1" or "0". There were difficulties in
getting the cell to write consistently, and the difference in resistance between a "1" and
"0" was only about 0.1% of the inherent cell resistance, an impractically low signal.
4.2. MAGNETIC TUNNEL JUNCTIONS
MRAM works by etching a grid of criss-crossing wires on a chip in two layersâ€Mwith
the horizontal wires being placed just below the vertical wires. At each intersection, a
"magnetic tunnel junction" (MTJ) is created that serves as a switchâ€" and thus as a
repository for a single bit of memory. The MTJ is essentially a small magnet whose
direction is easily flipped. Common materials for the MTJ include chromium dioxide and
iron-cobalt alloys. Current runs perpendicularly, "tunneling" through the insulator that
separates it from a sheath of copper. At the base of one of the electrodes is a fixed anti-
ferromagnetic layer that creates a strong coupling field. When a magnetic field is applied,
electrons flow from one electrode to another, creating 0 and 1 states.
TOP LEAD
free lerromagnet tunnel junction pinned ferroniagnet
an! ilermmagnet seed layer bottom lead substrate
Magnetic Tunnel Junction Basic Structure
exchange bias field
H=0
Hence tunneling current between two metallic magnetic layers separated by a very thin
insulating barrier (magnetic tunnel junction, MTJ) depends on the relative orientation of
the magnetization in the adjacent magnetic layers.
Little progress has been made until the mid-nineties and by now it is possible to fabricate
ferromagnet-insulator-ferromagnet tunnel junctions with magneto resistance effects of
20% and more at room temperature.. The high magneto resistance at room temperature
and generally low magnetic switching fields makes these junctions promising candidates
for the use as magnetic sensors and non-volatile memory elements for a next generation
of (high density) information handling. In view of these technological applications, the
magnetic tunnel junctions intrinsically possess a number of characteristic features, such
6. as:
the intrinsic high resistivity and low power consumption
the high DR/R
small dimensions allowing high densities expected thermal robustness radiation resistant
intrinsically fast response.
The above figure shows a schematic representation of a magnetic tunnel junction: two
metallic ferromagnetic electrodes separated by an insulator. The parallel and antiparallel
magnetic configurations of the electrodes have different resistance. The switching
between both states by application of a magnetic field brings about a magneto resistive
effect which can be used in several technological applications. Rp and Rap is the
resistance of the tunnel junction in the parallel and antiparallel configurations
respectively. Between the parallel and antiparallel magnetic configurations, magneto
resistance ratios as large as 50%.
Large magneto resistance ratios ratios at room temperature (-20-30%) were recently
reported in tunnel junctions composed of transition metal Ferro magnets (Fe, Co, Ni) as
electrodes and alumina (AI203) barriers. Their growth and patterning is rather well
controlled and they could constitute the core of the first-generation magnetic-tunnel-
junctions-based devices.
The parallel and antiparallel magnetic configurations of the electrodes spin of the
electron, which is an intrinsic microscopic magnet carried by each electron. The electrons
keep their spin direction and the probability of tunneling from the first electrode for one
electron with a certain spin direction depends on the number of states with the same spin
direction available in the second electrode .Thus, it is not equivalent for the tunneling
electrons the parallel and antiparallel configurations because they correspond to different
densities of states of the electrodes and, consequently, to different resistances.
The spin polarisation is a subtle concept related to the difference between the number of
spin-up and -down electrons participating in a certain electronic process. In this definition
spin-up electrons means electrons with spin parallel to the magnetisation and spin-down
electrons, antiparallel to the magnetisation. Therefore, a positive spin polarisation means
that there are more electrons with spin parallel to the magnetisation and a negative spin
polarisation means the contrary.
Much of the research has focused on engineering these ferromagnetic materials to have
the other needed properties:
Ability to rotate the magnetic moments using a very small magnetic field A smaller
overall resistance
An increased resistance differential between the two states â€A up from 10 percent to 50
percent. This differential makes distinguishing the two states of memory simple and
reliable: you pass a small current through the device and monitor the voltage drop.
*5carn'mq electron mlcroecope image of typical metal-masked magnetic tunnel junction,
30 urn x 60 Lim in area.
Junctions were directly fabricated using computer-controlled placement of up to 8
different metal shadow masks. The masks can be successively placed on any one of up to
twenty 1 inch diameter wafers with a placement accuracy of -±40 urn. By using
different masks, between 10 to 74 junctions of size ~80x80(^m2 can be fashioned on
7. each wafer. An optical micrograph of a typical junction is shown in this MJT picture. The
tunnel barrier is formed by oxidation of a thin Al layer deposited at ambient temperature.
In order to manipulate the relative orientation of the magnetic moments of the two
electrodes in a more controlled fashion we have developed magnetic tunnel junction
structures in which one of the magnetic layers is exchange biased using an
antiferromagnetic layer.
Magnitude of the magneto resistance would largely be dependent on the interface
between the tunnel barrier and the magnetic electrodes
Typical resistance versus field bop of a lithographically patterned magnetic tunnel
junction, 2x4lut" in area.
4.3. GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE
Metallic multilayers comprised of alternating ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic
spacer layers, each a few atomic layers thick, display fascinating properties. These
properties arise from quantum confinement of electrons in spin-dependent potential wells
provided by the ferromagnetic/spacer layer boundaries. In a ferromagnetic metal there
exists two current channels, one that can conduct a current better than the other. Thus the
fascinating properties arise from quantum confinement of electrons in spin-dependent
potential wells provided by the ferromagnet/spacer layer boundaries. An important
observation is that ferromagnet transition metals are indirectly magnetically exchange
coupled via spacer layers comprised of almost any of the non-ferromagnetic transition
metals. The magnetic coupling of the spacer layer and its strength varies systematically
with the spacer d-band tilling. The period of the coupling is related to the detailed
electronic structure of the spacer metal and can, for example, be tuned by varying the
composition of the spacer layer, or by varying its crystallographic orientation.
The resistance of metallic multilayered structures depends on the magnetic arrangement
of the magnetic moments of the individual magnetic layers, leading to oscillations in
resistance in zero fields with spacer layer thickness and large variations in resistance with
magnetic field. This latter phenomenon has been called "Giant Magnetoresistance
(GMR)". GMR has captured much attention since GMR multilayers display much larger
magneto resistance (MR) than any simple metal or alloy at room temperature.
The origin of GMR derives from spin-dependent scattering ofthe conduction carriers
within the magnetic layers or at the boundaries of the magnetic layers. Experiments show
convincingly the predominance of spin-dependent scattering at the ferromagnet/spacer
layer interfaces. For example, subtle modifications of the interfaces, by insertion of sub-
monolayer equivalents of additional magnetic material, can give rise to drastic changes in
magneto resistance. These changes depend on the magnetic and electronic character of
the modified interface, so that the magneto resistance itself becomes a valuable probe
ofthe interface.
With GMR, the current flows horizontally rather than perpendicularly and does not use
an insulator layer. We have seen in TMR technology, MRAMs sandwich a layer of
insulating material between two electrodes of magnetic material, such as ion nickel.
Current runs perpendicularly, "tunneling" through the insulator that separates it from a
sheath of copper. At the base of one of the electrodes is a fixed anti-ferromagnetic layer
that creates a strong coupling field. When a magnetic field is applied, electrons flow from
8. one electrode to another, creating 0 and 1 states
GMR technology has a much lower magnetic resistance (MR) ratio than TMR. GMR's
ratio is about 7 percent and has the potential to increase to about 15 percent. That limits is
potential performance compared with TMR, which has the potential to hit 30 percent to
40 percent. Thus GMR technology, many researchers say GMR is not viable for
commercial applications. Rather, tunneling magnetic resistance (TMR) is expected to be
the basis of future MRAM.
4.4. ADVANCED MRAM CONCEPTS
Two important goals of Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM)
development are to improve MRAM manufacturability and to extend MRAM density to
100 nm dimensions. One potential barrier to MRAM manufacturability is associated with
the method of write selection in which two orthogonal currents in coincidence must write
data, whereas each of the orthogonal currents alone cannot disturb the data. This "2D"
selection method places constraints on uniformity of MRAM Memory cells. Using a
transistor per cell for write select greatly improves operating margins and lowers write
currents. In this new scheme, a select transistor per memory cell is used for writing, and a
much smaller current is used for reading than for writing. This should result in
substantially wider process margins, but probably at the sacrifice of density due to the
size of the required transistor in the cell. This "ID magnetic select" scheme is potentially
ideal for small, high performance nonvolatile RAM.
A technique to increase density of MRAM by heating an antiferromagnetic pinning layer
above its ordering temperature (Neel temperature). This deepens the energy well depth of
unselected cells, and potentially will permit higher storage densities at smaller current
levels.
4.4.1. ID MAGNETIC SELECTION
Selected cells receive both Ix and Iy currents, and are switched into the desired memory
states. The currents must be selected so that Iy or Ix separately do not disturb the memory
state of stored data. Bits on the same x line or y line that are not being written are
subjected to "half-select" currents which tend to disturb the data. If very large currents are
used to insure the writing of worst case cells, then the half-select currents are also large
and tend to disturb the most disturb-sensitive cells.
The half-selected memory states are also not nearly as stable as stored and they provide
the majority of projected cell failures in time. In addition to half-select currents, these
cells must withstand stray fields from neighboring cells and fields from leakage currents
and stray environmental fields. Thus, the requirements for uniformity and design margins
present challenges in manufacturing the 2D magnetic arrays.
Most magneto resistive memory schemes also use a 2D selection scheme for reading
data. The original MRAM concept use magnetic 2D selection schemes for reading, which
introduce further, disturb conditions. Magnetic tunnel junction memories (MTJ) use a
diode or transistor to select a memory cell for reading, and thus do not have significant
disturb conditions for reading, but they still have the constraints of 2D magnetic selection
for writing.
9. "ID selection" scheme for both reading and writing a magneto resistive memory cell
improves reliability. A high current of either polarity (plus current for a " 1" and negative
current for a "0") is passed through a select transistor and through the memory cell to
write. A lower current is used to generate a voltage across the cell which will be higher or
lower depending on the data stored
lower current can be used for sensing. This would suggest large margins. After pinning,
very large magnetic fields (several thousands of Oe) cannot permanently reverse the
pinned direction if the temperature is significantly below the Neel (ordering) temperature
of the antiferromagnet. This property could be used in many memory cells to obtain a
deep energy well for stored data, and provided heat can be applied to the cell for writing,
the writing currents may not have to be very large.
These were approaches for making a producible, high performance memory and
approaches for extending the density of MRAM to nm dimensions. It should be noted
that these techniques could be used in combination. There are undoubtedly many more
possibilities for improving MRAM density, performance, and producibility that will
come to light in the next few years.
4.5. CURRENT STATUS
Magnetic RAM is not an overnight technological feat. It has taken nearly three decades to
develop. To give you an idea of when IBM began working on MRAM, Microsoft didn't
even exist when IBM made its first breakthrough in this technology. In 1974, IBM
Research developed a miniature computer component called the magnetic tunnel
junction. This component was eventually used to store information.
The potential market for MRAM is big. It is expected to eventually become the memory
standard for future electronics, replacing DRAM. In The potential market for MRAM is
big. It is expected to eventually become the memory standard for future electronics,
replacing DRAM. In MRAM has the potential to replace today's memory technologies in
electronic products of the future," said Bijan Davari, IBM Vice President of Technology
and Emerging Products. He added that the announcement of MRAM's impending
availability is a major step in moving the technology from the research stage to product
development.
By 2003, IBM and Infineon expect to have test chips in use. Initial chips will only be able
to accommodate 256 megabytes of data. There are already some removable Flash
Memory that can hold that much data. However, IBM researchers believe that they could
increase the data-storage size by the time it reaches volume production in 2004. MRAM
then will be made available to consumers in limited quantities.
It will probably take at least a decade before we see MRAM chips become a mainstream
storage medium. By then, who knows what we will be looking at? Holographic memory
(CDs, DVDs and magnetic storage all store bits of information on the surface of a
recording medium. In order to increase storage capabilities, scientists are now working on
a new optical storage method, called holographic memory that will go beneath the surface
and use the volume of the recording medium for storage, instead of only the surface
10. area. ) is projected to be available as early as 2003. It will be able to store 125 gigabytes
and produce transfer rates of about 40 megabytes per second. The combination of
MRAM and holographic memory, both being developed by IBM. could result in a
desktop computer than can hold tons of data, work faster and use less power than its most
high¬tech predecessors.
Because MRAM is non-volatile, there is never a need to flush data to disk every time
your system off .It also improves fde system data bandwidth by freeing disk from the
need to handle frequent metadata accesses.
IBM researcher Stuart Parkin used this sputtering machine to create magnetic tunnel
junctions, a key to MRAM technology
5. CHALLENGES FACED
While progress has been made in determining the structure and materials needed for
MRAM development there are still many hurdles to jump before MRAM chips can be
made production-worthy. Among the issues to tackle are architectures, materials
development, submicron manufacturing, wiring, and the feasibility of integrating MRAM
with logic.
Present day challenges for MRAM technology include Reducing drive currents
Eliminating cell instabilities due to magnetization vortices
Improving modes of operation at nanometer dimensions fundamental thermal instabilities
Finding applications with sufficient volumes and performance advantages to make
MRAM manufacturing costs competitive
To be practical, dense MRAM cells should operate with less than a few mA currents
when the lithography is at the 0.2 - 0.3 micron dimensions. Two reasons are: to stay
within the current carrying capability of thin, narrow metal lines, and to be compatible
with the center-to-center circuit spacing at the edge of the magnetic array. Reported data
shows more than 10 times the desired current densities. Several mitigating ideas have
emerged. One is to coat or "keeper" the tops and edges of the strip lines used in the
memory array. This is done to reduce word currents by a factor of 3. An additional idea is
to reduce the rise time of pulses, which takes advantage of the gyro-magnetic nature of
the magnetization. This technique has reduced the required drive currents by a factor of
more than 2. Devising methods whereby required current levels scale down with size of
the memory cell will continue to be a challenge for MRAM.
In the 1980's it was believed that as the memory cells approached the dimensions of a
domain wall width, there would be no more problems with multi-domain magnetization
in the cells, i.e. the magnetization would act as a single collection of spins with only one
rest state. This myth was shown to be false by both experiment and data. Anomolies
called "vortices" can occur in cells as small as a few tenths of a micron in diameter. This
can be prevented but at the expense of cell area. Recently, a circumferential
magnetization storage mode in round MRAM cells has been proposed. Vortices are the
unanticipated problem in MRAM technology.
The stability of the MRAM cell can be looked at as an energy well problem, where the
energy associated with storage is MHcV, where He is a critical field which prevents
magnetization reversal, M is the saturation magnetization, and V is the volume of the
magnetic material in the cell. As the volume is reduced, the ratio approaches some
11. multiple of kT (about 20) at which the error rate in the memory becomes unacceptable.
Making He ever higher does not work because of the current required to write and the
resultant heating ofthe cell (raising kT). With the present modes of operating, the
practical lower limit to MRAM storage area would be about 0.1 micron on a side. A new
idea is to use heat to help select the cell for writing and use the Curie point of an
antiferromagnet to enable writing with a low current. Then at cooler temperatures, the
energy well can be very deep.
We used photo- and electron-beam lithography to create working MTJ memory cells on a
silicon substrate. This is an essential first step for many aspects of our research. We are
continuing to develop processes that will provide uniformly high-quality structures across
the entire working surface. It is critical that all the MTJs operate with nearly identical
characteristics.
We reduced the MTJ device resistance more than 10-million-fold. Because the overall
resistance of a magnetic tunnel junction increases as the junction dimensions decrease,
MTJs must have a proportionally lower resistance as the feature size decreases in order to
make practical high-density chips. By carefully controlling the thickness and integrity of
the aluminum dioxide tunnel barrier (no pinholes can be tolerated!), the resistance has
been reduced from 1 billion ohm-microns-squared to 60 ohm-microns-squared. The
barrier, which is as thin as 10 angstroms â€b about four atomic layers - is created by
depositing and then oxidizing a thin fdm of aluminum.
We increased the low-field TMR five-fold: from 10 percent to nearly 50 percent. MJTs
with increased TMR produce a larger signal, which has many practical benefits, including
permitting more flexibility in designing circuits. Two factors led to the increased TMR:
a) Optimizing the ferromagnetic cobalt-iron alloy, and b) designing MTJs with the same
sort of "anti-ferromagnetic biasing" that makes GMR heads for disk drives so successful.
We measured MTJ reading and writing times as fast as 10 nanoseconds â€W some six
times faster than today's fastest DRAM memory. Such an extremely fast speed results
from both the high TMR and low device resistance.
We have increased the thermal stability of MTJ structures from 100 C to about 250 C.
We expect to need further testing and improvements in thermal stability before we can
use MTJs in applications.
The last challenge is getting MRAM into high production levels. It requires investment,
and a lot of it, perhaps as much as a billion dollars. It will take commitment from one or
more companies to manufacture RAM in high volume, in order to realize the tremendous
potential of MRAM as a mainstream nonvolatile memory technology, but with the right
investment. MRAM can be a very important mainstream memory technology.
6. ANTICIPATED APPLICATIONS
MRAM combines many of the advantages of presently available forms of memory. IBM
researchers have demonstrated that MRAM can be six times faster than the industry
standard's dynamic RAM (DRAM), and it is almost as fast as today's static RAM
(SRAM) â€( a faster, more expensive RAM used in memory caches. MRAM also has
the potential to be. Extremely dense, packing more information into a smaller space. The
1,000-bit prototype is significantly denser than conventional static RAM.
12. The most important attribute of MRAM is its nonvolatility. In the absence of any
electrical power, the magnetic moments maintain their alignment. Thus, the data is kept
intact. This feature could enable instant-on computers, because the memory state would
be maintained when you turned your computer off.
This instant-on ability doesn't just apply to desktop computers. "The most likely
application for MRAM will be in pervasive computing devices," Parkin says. As portable
wireless devices become universal, devices such as PDAs and cell phones will require the
dense, fast, relatively inexpensive nonvolatile memory that MRAM can provide.
In the United States, a research program in magnetic materials and devices was launched
in '94, sharing the costs with Honeywell, IBM, and Motorola. Several other U.S.
companies have developed products based on GMR technology, and last winter, Hewlett-
Packard said it intends to join IBM and Motorola in the TMR market. The anticipated
applications of this collective effort is funding spin-electronics research in hopes of
exploiting nonvolatile-memory capabilities in embedded systems for use in satellites,
strategic missiles, avionics, and other mission-critical applications. For instance, coding
information for satellites could be loaded on rad-hard MRAM devices that would ensure
satellites remain on station.
Rebooting aircraft computers using traditional storage technologies delays operations on
the flight line. Nonvolatile MRAM technology "would change the way the military
operate", researchers believe.
Beyond military applications, government researchers envision MRAM technology
showing up within five years in embedded applications, such as cell phones and digital
cameras. The dawn of the MRAM-based laptop, which will eliminate boot-up delays,
will take longer, scientists say.
"The payoff is going to be in all the mobile applications," the Naval Research
Laboratory's Prinz said, particularly when gigabit MRAM chips can be integrated into
cell phones to dump data onto hard drives.
HP, meanwhile, will pit its MRAMs against more-expensive flash memories. HP also
plans to combine MRAMs with atomic-resolution storage technology to replace hard
drives. Mike Matson, general manager of HP's Information Storage Group, said he
expects the combined technology to grab half the traditional hard-drive market over time.
Parallel disk storage can have significant benefits to enabling war fighting capabilities.
Military applications, including ballistic missile controls and multi-theater troop
management, afford considerable challenges for rapid data storage and retrieval. Health
applications, particularly biomedical research, often require similar high density, rapid
access disk storage capabilities that could benefit from advances in this technology
7. CONCLUSION
If MRAM chips are to debut, the completely different architecture will make DRAM
chips obsolete and issue a new era of memory chips.
MRAM solves your problem of losing data typed on your computer unless you are
connected to uninterruptible power supply, as MRAM doesn't forget anything when
power goes out. The difference is conventional RAM, uses electrical CELLS to store
data, MRAM uses magnetic cells. This method is similar to the way your hard drive
13. stores information. When you remove power from your computer, conventional RAM
loses memory, but the data on your hard disk remains intact due to its magnetic
orientation, which represents binary information. Because magnetic memory cells
maintain their state even when power is removed, MRAM possesses a distinct advantage
over electrical cells.
There is still a long way to go before MRAM is ready for prime time. Neither IBM nor
Motorola, for instance, is expected to go into mass production until they prove that they
can make 256 megabit chipsâ€c the standard memory module used today. But, as total
sales of computer memory in 2000 were estimated by Semico Research Corporation to
have been worth $48 billion, manufacturers have a considerable incentive to ensure that
MRAM becomes a serious challenger for DRAM's crown.
8. REFERENCES
1. J. Raffel and T. Crowder IEEE Trans. Electronic Components 13.
2. M Johnson, B Bennett and M. Yang Hybrid Ferromagnetic Semiconductor NV
memory
3. L. Schwee, P. Hunter, K. Restorff, and M. Shepard The Concept
And Initial Studies Of A Cross tie Random Access Memory
4 http://www.howstuffw.orks.<!omrnrarn.html
5. http://www.csl.cse.uc.sc.edumrafn.html
6. http://www.crism.standford.edumram.html
7.
CONTENTS
1.INTRODUCTION 1
2.ATTRACTIONS OF THIS NEW TECHNOLOGY 2
3.HOW MRAM WORKS
3.1 INSTANT ON COMPUTING 4
3.2 MRAM ARCHITECTURE 5
3.2.1 READING DATA 6
3.2.2 WRITING DATA 6
4.DEVELOPING MRAM
4.1 BACKGROUND 8
4.2 MAGNETIC TUNNEL JUNCTIONS 9
4.3 GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE 13
4.4 ADVANCED MRAM CONCEPTS 14
4.4.1 ID MAGNETIC SELECTIONS 15
4.4.2 NEEL PINT WRITTEN CELLS 16
4.5 CURRENT STATUS 17
5. CHALLENGES FACED 19
6. ANTICIPATED APPLICATIONS 22
7. CONCLUSION 24
8. REFERENCES
Reference: http://seminarprojects.com/Thread-magnetic-ram-full-report#ixzz1ng34Ga67