This document discusses RNA and protein biosynthesis. It describes the key types of RNA - mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA. mRNA carries DNA's genetic message to the ribosome for protein synthesis. tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosome. rRNA provides the infrastructure for mRNA, tRNA and amino acids to interact during translation. The central dogma of molecular biology is that DNA's genetic information is transcribed into mRNA and then translated into protein. The genetic code uses triplet codons to specify each amino acid. Inhibitors like actinomycin D and streptomycin can block RNA and protein synthesis in bacteria.
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
For MBBS, BDS and General Biochemistry students, coding strand, sense strand, anti-sense strand, promoter, enhancers, silencers, TATA box, Goldberg Hogness box, alternative spilicing, post-transcriptional modification
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
For MBBS, BDS and General Biochemistry students, coding strand, sense strand, anti-sense strand, promoter, enhancers, silencers, TATA box, Goldberg Hogness box, alternative spilicing, post-transcriptional modification
A DNA polymerase is a member of a family of enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of DNA molecules from nucleoside triphosphates, the molecular precursors of DNA. These enzymes are essential for DNA replication and usually work in groups to create two identical DNA duplexes from a single original DNA duplex. During this process, DNA polymerase "reads" the existing DNA strands to create two new strands that match the existing ones.[1][2][3][4][5][6] These enzymes catalyze the chemical reaction
deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn ⇌ pyrophosphate + DNAn+1.
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the three prime (3')-end of a DNA strand, one nucleotide at a time. Every time a cell divides, DNA polymerases are required to duplicate the cell's DNA, so that a copy of the original DNA molecule can be passed to each daughter cell. In this way, genetic information is passed down from generation to generation.
Before replication can take place, an enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA molecule from its tightly woven form, in the process breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide bases. This opens up or "unzips" the double-stranded DNA to give two single strands of DNA that can be used as templates for replication in the above reaction.
Conformational study of polynucleotideKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
History
The conformation of nucleic acid
Types of polynucleotide
DNA- types and conformation of DNA
B- DNA
A-DNA Z-DNA
RNA – types and conformation of RNA
Coding DNA
Non coding DNA
structure of RNA
Primary structure of RNA
Secondary structure of RNA
Tertiary structure of RNA
Analyzing techniques
Conclusion
References
A DNA polymerase is a member of a family of enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of DNA molecules from nucleoside triphosphates, the molecular precursors of DNA. These enzymes are essential for DNA replication and usually work in groups to create two identical DNA duplexes from a single original DNA duplex. During this process, DNA polymerase "reads" the existing DNA strands to create two new strands that match the existing ones.[1][2][3][4][5][6] These enzymes catalyze the chemical reaction
deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn ⇌ pyrophosphate + DNAn+1.
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the three prime (3')-end of a DNA strand, one nucleotide at a time. Every time a cell divides, DNA polymerases are required to duplicate the cell's DNA, so that a copy of the original DNA molecule can be passed to each daughter cell. In this way, genetic information is passed down from generation to generation.
Before replication can take place, an enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA molecule from its tightly woven form, in the process breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide bases. This opens up or "unzips" the double-stranded DNA to give two single strands of DNA that can be used as templates for replication in the above reaction.
Conformational study of polynucleotideKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
History
The conformation of nucleic acid
Types of polynucleotide
DNA- types and conformation of DNA
B- DNA
A-DNA Z-DNA
RNA – types and conformation of RNA
Coding DNA
Non coding DNA
structure of RNA
Primary structure of RNA
Secondary structure of RNA
Tertiary structure of RNA
Analyzing techniques
Conclusion
References
A protein synthesis inhibitor is a substance that stops or slows the growth or proliferation of cells by disrupting the processes that lead directly to the generation of new proteins. All of the antibiotics that target bacterial protein synthesis do so by interacting with the bacterial ribosome and inhibiting its function. The ribosome might not seem like a very good target for selective toxicity, because all cells, including our own, use ribosomes for protein synthesis.The good thing is that bacteria and eukaryotes have ribosomes that are structurally different. Bacteria have so-called 70S ribosomes and eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes. No, not '70s and '80s ribosomes, although that would be pretty entertaining. The S stands for 'Svedberg unit,' and it refers to the rate at which particles sediment down into the tube during high-speed ultracentrifugation. Basically, it tells us about the ribosome's molecular weight and shape.
70S and 80S ribosomes are different enough that antibiotics can specifically target one and not the other. Let's take a closer look at the bacterial 70S ribosome and see where some different kinds of antibiotics act on it. Remember that ribosomes are made of RNA and protein and that they have two subunits, one large and one small.
The bacterial 70S ribosome's subunits are the 50S subunit and the 30S subunit. Yes, I know, 50 + 30 = 80, not 70, but this is not a math mistake. Using the Svedberg unit to measure ribosomes means that things don't always add up perfectly, because rates of sedimentation are not additive like molecular weights are.
Before we get into the specifics of how antibiotics inhibit bacterial ribosomes, let's briefly review how ribosomes work. First, a tRNA loaded with a particular amino acid enters the ribosome at the A site. The tRNA's anticodon has to match the codon, or group of three nucleotides on the mRNA. Then, at the P site of the ribosome, a peptide bond forms between the previous amino acid and the new amino acid. Finally, the empty tRNA exits at the E site. This process repeats for the whole length of the mRNA, and the polypeptide chain continues to grow.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• RNA is also a polymer of purine and
pyrimidine nucleotides linked by
phosphodiester bonds
2
3. Differences between RNA and DNA
RNA DNA
Mainly seen in cytoplasm Mostly inside nucleus
Usually 100-5000 bases Millions of base pairs
Generally single stranded Double stranded
Sugar is ribose Sugar is deoxyribose
Purins: Adenine, Guanine Purins: Adenine, Guanine
Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Uracil Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Thymine
Guanine content is not equal Guanine content is equal to
to cytosine and adenine is cytosine and adenine is equal
not equal to uracil to thymine
Easily destroyed by alkali
3
Alkali resistant
5. Types of RNA
• Messenger RNA (mRNA).
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) or (sRNA).
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
5
6. Messenger RNA or mRNA
• It acts as a messenger of the information in the
gene in DNA to the protein synthesizing machinery
in cytoplasm. It carries the message to be
translated to a protein.
• The template strand of DNA is transcribed into a
single stranded mRNA. The is accomplished by the
DNA dependent RNA polymerase.
• The mRNA is a complementary copy of the template
strand of the DNA.
• However, thymine is not present in RNA; instead
uracil will be incorporated.
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7. Transfer RNA (tRNA) or (sRNA)
• They transfer amino acids from cytoplasm to the
ribosomal protein synthesizing machinery; hence
the name transfer RNA.
• Since they are easily soluble, they are also referred
to as soluble RNA or sRNA.
• They are RNA molecules present in the cytoplasm.
• Each molecule is only 73-93 nucleotides in length;
much shorter than mRNA molecules.
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9. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Ribosomes provide necessary infrastructure
for the mRNA, tRNA and amino acids to
interact with each other for the translation
process.
• Thus, ribosomal assembly is the protein
synthesizing machinery.
9
10. Central Dogma of Molecular Biology:
The information available in the DNA is passed to
messenger RNA, which is then used for synthesis of a
particular protein.
10
11. Steps of protein synthesis
1. Transcription:
• It is taking place all the time. Only certain
areas of the DNA are copied (selected region
on the sense strand).
• The genetic information (code) of DNA is
transcribed (copied) to the messenger RNA
(mRNA).
• During transcription, the message from the
DNA is copied in the language of nucleotides
11
12. 2. Translation:
• The mRNA then reaches the cytoplasm
where it is translated into functional
proteins.
• During translation, the nucleotide sequence
is translated to the language of amino acid
sequence.
12
14. Inhibitors of RNA synthesis
• Actinomycin D and Mitomycin
intercalate with DNA strands, thus
blocking transcription. They are used
as anticancer drugs.
• Rifampicin is widely used in the
treatment of tuberculosis and leprosy.
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15. Genetic code
A triplet sequence of nucleotides
on the mRNA is the codon for
each amino acid.
15
16. Salient features of genetic code
• 1. Triplet codons:
Each codon is a consecutive sequence of three bases
on the mRNA,
e.g. UUU codes for phenylalanine.
• 2. Non overlapping:
The codes are consecutive. Therefore, the starting
points is extremely important. The codes are read
one after another in a continuous manner, e.g.
AUG, CAU,CAU, GCA, etc.
16
17. • 3. Non punctuated:
There is no punctuation between the codons. It is
consecutive or continuous.
• 4. Degenerate:
When an amino acid has more than codon, this called
degeneracy of the code.
E.g. serine has 6 codons while glycine has 4 codons.
• 5. Unambiguous:
Through the codons are degenerate, they are
unambiguous: or without any doubtful meaning.
That is, one codon codes only one amino acid.
17
18. • 6. Universal:
The codons are the same for the same amino acid in all
species; the same for “Elephant and E.coli”.
The genetic code has been highly preserved during
evolution.
• 7. Terminator codons:
There are three codons which do not code for any
particular amino acids. They are “nonsense codons”,
more correctly termed as punctuator codons or
terminator codons. They put “full stop” to the protein
synthesis. These three codons are UAA, UAG, and UGA.
• 8. Initiator codon:
• In most of the cases, AUG acts as the initiator codon.
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19. Inhibitors of protein synthesis
• The modern medical practice is heavily dependent
on the use of antibiotics.
• They generally act only on bacteria and are nontoxic
to human beings.
• Some antibiotics act as irreversible inhibitors to
bacteria:
• E.g. Streptomycin which causes misreading of
mRNA.
• Others act as reversible inhibitors to bacteria
• E.g. Erythromycin prevents translation process
19