RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
An Overview...
Definition of Translation.
Def. of Eukaryotes.
Translation: An Overview.
Components of Translation.
Some Enzymes .
Ribosome Role.
Mechanism of Translation.
Initiation.
Scanning Model of Initiation.
Initiation Factors.
Animation.
Elongation.
Chain Elongation: Translocation.
Animation.
Termination.
Animation....
It's not perfect still... what are your views friends?
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
An Overview...
Definition of Translation.
Def. of Eukaryotes.
Translation: An Overview.
Components of Translation.
Some Enzymes .
Ribosome Role.
Mechanism of Translation.
Initiation.
Scanning Model of Initiation.
Initiation Factors.
Animation.
Elongation.
Chain Elongation: Translocation.
Animation.
Termination.
Animation....
It's not perfect still... what are your views friends?
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
Genetic information, stored in the chromosomes and transmitted to daughter cells through DNA replication, is expressed through transcription to RNA and translation into proteins (polypeptide chains). The pathway of protein synthesis is called translation because the “language” of the nucleotide sequence on the mRNA is translated into the “language” of an amino acid sequence. The process of translation requires a genetic code, through which the information contained in the nucleic acid sequence is expressed to produce a specific sequence of amino acids. Any alteration in the nucleic acid sequence may result in an incorrect amino acid being inserted into the polypeptide chain, potentially causing disease or even death of the organism.
This presentation is about a type of nucleic acid which is called RNA. in this presentation we will discuss RNA. its types, its structure and Functions etc. Like and download my slide so i will upload more and more presentations for you peoples.
Milbury C.A., Lee J.C., Cannone J.J., Gaffney P.M., and Gutell R.R. (2010).
Fragmentation of the Large Subunit Ribosomal RNA Gene in Oyster Mitochondrial Genomes.
BMC Genomics, 11(1):485.
A ribosome is a complex cellular mechanism used to translate genetic code into chains of amino acids.
Long chains of amino acids fold and function as proteins in cells.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
My project named “Event Management System” is software that store and maintained all events coordinated in college. It also helpful to print related reports. My project will help to record the events coordinated by faculties with their Name, Event subject, date & details in an efficient & effective ways.
In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
2. Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid
(rRNA)
rRNA is a type of non-coding RNA which is the primary component of ribosomes,
essential to all cells.
rRNA is a ribozyme which carries out protein synthesis in ribosomes.
Ribosomal RNA is transcribed from ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and then bound to
ribosomal proteins to form small and large ribosome subunits.
rRNA is the physical and mechanical factor of the ribosome that forces transfer RNA
(tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) to process and translate the latter into proteins.
Ribosomal RNA is the predominant form of RNA found in most cells; it makes up about
80% of cellular RNA despite never being translated into proteins itself.
Ribosomes are composed of approximately 60% rRNA and 40% ribosomal proteins by
mass.
3. Structure
The primary structure of rRNA sequences can vary
across organisms, base-pairing within these sequences
commonly forms stem-loop configurations.
The length and position of these rRNA stem-loops
allow them to create three-dimensional rRNA structures
that are similar across species.
Because of these configurations, rRNA can form tight
and specific interactions with ribosomal proteins to form
ribosomal subunits.
These ribosomal proteins contain basic residues
(as opposed to acidic residues) and aromatic residues
(i.e. phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan) allowing
them to form chemical interactions with their associated
RNA regions, such as stacking interactions.
An example of a fully-assembled small
subunit of ribosomal RNA in prokaryotes,
specifically Thermus Thermophilus.
The actual ribosomal RNA (16S) is shown
coiled in orange with ribosomal proteins
attaching in blue.
4. Ribosomal proteins can also cross-link to the sugar-phosphate backbone of rRNA with
binding sites that consist of basic residues (i.e. lysine and arginine).
All ribosomal proteins (including the specific sequences that bind to rRNA) have been
identified.
Ribosomal RNA organizes into two ribosomal subunits: the large ribosomal subunit
(LSU) and small ribosomal subunit (SSU). Between these subunits, the rRNA types
used to form the subunit differ
5. Subunits and associated
Ribosomal RNA
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes can be broken down into two subunits,
one large and one small.
Type Size Large subunit
(LSU rRNA)
Small subunit
(SSU rRNA)
Prokaryotic 70S 50S (5S : 120 nt,
23S : 2906 nt)
30S (16S : 1542 nt)
Eukaryotic 80S 60S (5S : 121 nt,
5.8S : 156 nt, 28S :
5070 nt)
40S (18S : 1869 nt)
Note that "nt" represents the length of the rRNA type in nucleotides and the "S"
(such as in "16S) represents Svedberg units.
6. In the ribosomes of prokaryotes such as bacteria, the SSU contains a single small
rRNA molecule (~1500 nucleotides) while the LSU contains one single small rRNA
and a single large rRNA molecule (~3000 nucleotides). These are combined with
~50 ribosomal proteins to form ribosomal subunits. . There are three types of rRNA
found in prokaryotic ribosomes: 23S and 5S rRNA in the LSU and 16S rRNA in the
SSU.
In prokaryotes a small 30S ribosomal subunit contains the 16S ribosomal
RNA.
In Prokaryotes
Example of typical rDNA sequence
found repeated throughout the genome,
specifically of the internal transcribed
spacer between 16S and 23S found in
bacteria.
7. The large 50S ribosomal subunit contains two rRNA species (the 5S and 23S
ribosomal RNAs).
Therefore it can be deduced that in both bacteria and archaea there is one rRNA
gene that codes for all three rRNA types :16S, 23S and 5S.
Bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA, 23S ribosomal RNA, and 5S rRNA genes are
typically organized as a co-transcribed operon. As shown by the image,
There is an internal transcribed spacer between 16S and 23S rRNA genes.
There may be one or more copies of the operon, dispersed in the genome (for
example, Escherichia coli has seven). Typically in bacteria there are between one
and fifteen copies.
Archaea contains either a single rRNA gene operon or up to four copies of the
same operon.
The 3' end of the 16S ribosomal RNA (in a ribosome) recognizes a sequence on
the 5' end of mRNA called the Shine-Dalgarno sequence.
8. In the ribosomes of eukaryotes such as humans, the SSU contains a single small
rRNA (~1800 nucleotides) while the LSU contains two small rRNAs and one molecule
of large rRNA (~5000 nucleotides).
Eukaryotic rRNA has over 70 ribosomal proteins which interact to form larger and
more polymorphic ribosomal units in comparison to prokaryotes.
There are four types of rRNA in eukaryotes: 3 species in the LSU and 1 in the SSU.
Yeast has been the traditional model for observation of eukaryotic rRNA behavior
and processes, leading to a deficit in diversification of research.
In yeast, the LSU contains the 5S, 5.8S and 28S rRNAs.
The combined 5.8S and 28S are roughly equivalent in size and function to the
prokaryotic 23S rRNA subtype, minus expansion segments (ESs) that are localized to
the surface of the ribosome which were thought to occur only in eukaryotes.
In contrast, eukaryotes generally have many copies of the rRNA genes organized in
tandem repeats.
In Eukaryotes
9. In humans, approximately 300–400 repeats are present in five clusters, located on
chromosomes 13 (RNR1), 14 (RNR2), 15 (RNR3), 21 (RNR4) and 22 (RNR5).
Humans have 10 clusters of genomic rDNA which in total make up less than 0.5% of
the human genome.
Mammalian cells have 2 mitochondrial (12S and 16S) rRNA molecules and 4 types of
cytoplasmic rRNA (the 28S, 5.8S, 18S, and 5S subunits).
The 28S, 5.8S, and 18S rRNAs are encoded
by a single transcription unit (45S) separated
by 2 internally transcribed spacers.
The first spacer corresponds to the one
found in bacteria and archaea, and the other
spacers an insertion into what was the 23S
rRNAin prokaryotes.
The 45S rDNA is organized into 5 clusters
(each has 30–40 repeats) on chromosomes
13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.
Diagram of ribosomal RNA types and how they combine
to create the ribosomal subunits.
10. These are transcribed by RNA polymerase I.
The DNA for the 5S subunit occurs in tandem arrays (~200–300 true 5S genes and
many dispersed pseudogenes), the largest one on the chromosome 1q41-42. 5S rRNA is
transcribed by RNA polymerase III.
The 18S rRNA in most eukaryotes is in the small ribosomal subunit, and the large
subunit contains three rRNA species (the 5S, 5.8S and 28S in mammals, 25S in plants,
rRNAs).
The tertiary structure of the small subunit ribosomal
RNA (SSU rRNA) has been resolved by X-ray crystall-
ographyThe secondary structure of SSU rRNA contains
4 distinct domains—the 5', central, 3' major and 3'
minor domains. A model of the secondary structure
for the 5' domain (500-800 nucleotides) is shown.
Small subunit ribosomal RNA, 5' domain taken from
the Rfam database. This example is RF00177, a
fragment from an uncultured bacterium.
11. Functions of rRNA
Universally conserved secondary structural elements in rRNA among different
species show that these sequences are some of the oldest discovered. They serve
critical roles in forming the catalytic sites of translation of mRNA. During
translation of mRNA, rRNA functions to bind both mRNA and tRNA to facilitate
the process of translating mRNA's codon sequence into amino acids. rRNA initiates
the catalysis of protein synthesis when tRNA is sandwiched between the SSU and
LSU.
In the SSU, the mRNA interacts with the anticodons of the tRNA. In the LSU, the
amino acid acceptor stem of the tRNA interacts with the LSU rRNA.
The ribosome catalyzes ester-amide exchange, transferring the C-terminus of a
nascent peptide from a tRNA to the amine of an amino acid.
These processes are able occur due to sites within the ribosome in which these
molecules can bind, formed by the rRNA stem-loops. A ribosome has three of these
binding sites called the A, P and E sites:
12. • In general, the A (aminoacyl) site contains an aminoacyl-tRNA (a tRNA esterified to
an amino acid on the 3' end).
• The P (peptidyl) site contains a tRNA esterified to the nascent peptide. The free
amino (NH2) group of the A site tRNA attacks the ester linkage of P site tRNA, causing
transfer of the nascent peptide to the amino acid in the A site. This reaction is takes
place in the peptidyl transferase center.
• The E (exit) site contains a tRNA that has been discharged, with a free 3' end (with no
amino acid or nascent peptide).
A single mRNA can be translated simultaneously by multiple ribosomes. This is
called a polysome.
A simplified depiction of a ribosome (with SSU and
LSU artificially detached here for visualization
purposes) depicting the A and P sites and both
the small and large ribosomal subunits operating
in conjunction.
13. In prokaryotes, much work has been done to further identify the importance of rRNA
in translation of mRNA. For example, it has been found that the A site consists
primarily of 16S rRNA. Apart from various protein elements that interact with tRNA at
this site, it is hypothesized that if these proteins were removed without altering
ribosomal structure, the site would continue to function normally. In the P site,
through the observation of crystal structures it has been shown the 3' end of 16s rRNA
can fold into the site as if a molecule of mRNA. This results in intermolecular
interactions that stabilize the subunits. Similarly, like the A site, the P site primarily
contains rRNA with few proteins. The peptidyl transferase center, for example, is
formed by nucleotides from the 23S rRNA subunit. In fact, the peptidyl transferase
center contains no proteins, and is entirely initiated by the presence of rRNA. Unlike
the A and P sites, the E site contains more proteins. Because proteins are not essential
for the functioning of the A and P sites, the E site molecular composition shows that it
is perhaps evolved later. In primitive ribosomes, it is likely that tRNAs exited from the
P site. Additionally, it has been shown that E-site tRNA bind with both the 16S and 23S
rRNA subunits.