The respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Its main function is to oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide through gas exchange that occurs in the alveoli. Air enters through the nose and is warmed and filtered before reaching the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen diffuses into blood vessels and carbon dioxide diffuses out. The diaphragm and chest muscles facilitate breathing by expanding the lungs. Common respiratory disorders include COPD, lung cancer, asthma, and infections. The system develops fully after birth and declines with aging.
Here's a Presentation made by GROUP F on CORONARY CIRCULATION. This slide was created for Problem Based Learning (PBL) wrap up session Held At Kathmandu University- Birat Medical College Teaching Hospital (BMCTH).
feel free to Download and share this slide. You can leave comments for further improvement on other presentations. Thankyou. Cheers!
Here's a Presentation made by GROUP F on CORONARY CIRCULATION. This slide was created for Problem Based Learning (PBL) wrap up session Held At Kathmandu University- Birat Medical College Teaching Hospital (BMCTH).
feel free to Download and share this slide. You can leave comments for further improvement on other presentations. Thankyou. Cheers!
The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle.
In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration. Air is breathed in through the nose or the mouth. In the nasal cavity, a layer of mucous membrane acts as a filter and traps pollutants and other harmful substances found in the air.
It is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the lesson or topic: Respiratory System. It also talks about the definition, parts and the concepts about Respiratory System.
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways, lungs, and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.
The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle.
In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration. Air is breathed in through the nose or the mouth. In the nasal cavity, a layer of mucous membrane acts as a filter and traps pollutants and other harmful substances found in the air.
It is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the lesson or topic: Respiratory System. It also talks about the definition, parts and the concepts about Respiratory System.
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways, lungs, and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.
This ppt is all about Respiratory System in Anatomy and Physiology and to familiarize the importance of the lungs and the parts of our respiratory system
it explains the structure of respiratory system, organs involved, volume of air exchanges and review questions to check students knowledge after the chapter is over
the beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you...so study and hard .....i hope it is helpful to you and its useful for study...best of luck
Pharmacology Experiment based Questions With Answer KeysA M O L D E O R E
MSBTE Pharmacology Practical Exam for Diploma in pharmacy students in Maharashtra.
Experimental pharmacology for D. Pharmacy Students
Pharmacology Experiment based Questions
PCI New Syllabus ER2020
Course Code: 20056
Antidepressants are a class of medication used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain conditions and to help manage addictions. Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting
Anatomy and physiology are two of the most basic terms and areas of study in the life sciences. Anatomy refers to the internal and external structures of the body and their physical relationships, whereas physiology refers to the study of the functions of those structures.
Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and containing a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Unlike the eukaryotic cells of plants and fungi, animal cells do not have a cell wall. This feature was lost in the distant past by the single-celled organisms that gave rise to the kingdom Animalia. Most cells, both animal and plant, range in size between 1 and 100 micrometers and are thus visible only with the aid of a microscope.
All living organisms are made of cells and cellular products. The cell is the smallest structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms. It can capable of biosynthesis, replication and energy transformation. All cellular organelles carry out specific functions that are necessary for the normal functioning of the cell. Animal cells work together and function interdependently. Human cells vary in size, shape, and function. Most animal cells are so small they can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Based on function, there are more than 200 different kinds of animal cells that help each system contribute to the homeostasis of the entire body. Despite their many differences, human cells have several similar structural features: a cell membrane, a nucleus, and cytoplasm and cell organelles.
The term “opiate” refers only to substances with morphine-like activity that are structurally related to morphine. Opioids are sometimes referred to as “narcotic analgesics” and opioid receptor antagonists as “narcotic antagonists”
Sympatholytic drugs (Adrenergic blockers) bind to the adrenergic receptors and prevent the action of adrenergic drugs.
These are drugs which block the actions of sympathetic division or catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline).
They are competitive antagonists at both α and β adrenergic receptors.
Your sympathetic nervous system is best known for its role in responding to dangerous or stressful situations.
In these situations, your sympathetic nervous system activates to speed up your heart rate, deliver more blood to areas of your body that need more oxygen or other responses to help your get out of danger.
Its nerve fibers arise from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord.
The autonomic ganglia are the synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic axons then go to the visceral effectors.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter releases in the preganglionic nerve endings and Noradrenaline at postganglionic nerve endings.
The drugs which mimic the action sympathetic division are called sympathomimetics.
They show similar actions as that of catecholamines.
Sympathomimetic
They act by either by directly interacting with adrenergic receptors (alpha or beta) or stimulation of the adrenergic nerve endings.
The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or digestive tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. ... The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
Hemostasis or haemostasis is a process to prevent and stop bleeding, meaning to keep blood within a damaged blood vessel (the opposite of hemostasis is hemorrhage). It is the first stage of wound healing. This involves coagulation, blood changing from a liquid to a gel.
Aminocaproates.
Antifibrinolytic Agents.
Estrogens, Conjugated (USP)
Hemostatics.
Tranexamic Acid.
Aprotinin.
Deamino Arginine Vasopressin
Sulfonamides (sulphonamides) are a group of man-made (synthetic) medicines that contain the sulfonamide chemical group. They may also be called sulfa drugs. Many people use the term sulfonamide imprecisely to refer only to antibiotics that have a sulfonamide functional group in their chemical structure.
The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
Anticoagulants are used to treat and prevent blood clots that may occur in your blood vessels. Blood clots can block blood vessels (an artery or a vein). A blocked artery stops blood and oxygen from getting to a part of your body (for example, to a part of the heart, brain or lungs).
A tissue is a group of similar cells that are specialized for a particular function.
The four basic fundamental types of body tissues are
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Nervous tissue
Each type of tissue is characterized by specific functions. These tissues contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the body. These tissues combine to form organs. The various organs make up the systems of the body that allow us to function and survive in our complex world. Histology is the science that deals with the study of tissues.
In biology, the tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
The English word "tissue" derives from the French word "tissue", meaning that something that is "woven", from the verb tisse, "to weave".
Career scope and opportunities
Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication. The scope of pharmacy practice includes compounding and dispensing medications, and it also related to more modern services like patient care, including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information.
The demand for pharma graduates is high in sectors like - healthcare, research, manufacturing, medical marketing, pharmacovigilance etc. As a pharma graduate, you can take up job roles like - drugs inspector, drugs controller, hospital pharmacist etc.
Ever hear the term "bronchial asthma" and wonder what it means? When people talk about bronchial asthma, they are really talking about asthma, a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways that causes periodic "attacks" of coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness.
According to the CDC, more than 25 million Americans, including 6.8 million children under age 18, suffer with asthma today.
Allergies are strongly linked to asthma and to other respiratory diseases such as chronic sinusitis, middle ear infections, and nasal polyps. Most interestingly, a recent analysis of people with asthma showed that those who had both allergies and asthma were much more likely to have nighttime awakening due to asthma, miss work because of asthma, and require more powerful medications to control their symptoms.
Asthma is associated with mast cells, eosinophils, and T lymphocytes. Mast cells are the allergy-causing cells that release chemicals like histamine. Histamine is the substance that causes nasal stuffiness and dripping in a cold or hay fever, constriction of airways in asthma, and itchy areas in a skin allergy. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell associated with allergic disease. T lymphocytes are also white blood cells associated with allergy and inflammation.
These cells, along with other inflammatory cells, are involved in the development of airway inflammation in asthma that contributes to the airway hyperresponsiveness, airflow limitation, respiratory symptoms, and chronic disease. In certain individuals, the inflammation results in the feelings of chest tightness and breathlessness that's felt often at night (nocturnal asthma) or in the early morning hours. Others only feel symptoms when they exercise (called exercise-induced asthma). Because of the inflammation, the airway hyperresponsiveness occurs as a result of specific triggers.
These are substances produced by a wide variety of cells in the body, having strong biological activity. Autacoids generally act locally at the site of synthesis and release. So they have also been called ‘local hormones’. They have short duration of action. They usually exert their action at the site of inflammation, lesion and injury.
The autacoids also differ from circulating hormones in that they are produced by many tissues rather than in specific endocrine glands.
The classical autacoids are— Ex.
Histamine, Serotonin
Prostaglandins, Leukotriene, Heparin, Endothelins
Bradykinin, Angiotensin, Eicosanoids
Interleukins, TNFα (tissue necrosis factor),
Platelet activating factor
The cell is the smallest structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms. It can capable of biosynthesis, replication and energy transformation.
ANATOMY
Anatomy is the study of the structure or morphology of the body and the physical relationship between body parts.
PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the study of the functions of body parts, what they do, and how they do it.
Within the body, there are different levels of structural organization and complexity.
Parasympatholytics are the drugs that block or inhibit the actions of acetylcholine at postganglionic nerve endings and cholinergic receptors. They are also referred to as anticholinergics or cholinergic blocking agents or antispasmodics.
Anticholinergic drugs include atropine and related drugs- atropine is the prototype. Atropine is obtained from the plant Atropa belladonna. Atropine and scopolamine (hyoscine) are the belladonna alkaloids. They compete with acetylcholine for muscarinic receptors and block this receptors-they are muscarinic antagonists.
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
2. Organs of the Respiratory
system
• Nose
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs –
alveoli
Figure 13.1
3. Function of the Respiratory
System
• Oversees gas exchanges between the
blood and external environment
• Exchange of gasses takes place within
the alveoli
• Passageways to the lungs purify, warm,
and humidify the incoming air
4. The Nose
• The only externally visible part of the
respiratory system
• Air enters the nose through the external
nares (nostrils)
• The interior of the nose consists of a nasal
cavity divided by a nasal septum
6. Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
• Olfactory receptors are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface
• The rest of the cavity is lined with
respiratory mucosa
– Moistens air
– Traps incoming foreign particles
7. Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
• Lateral walls have projections called
conchae
– Increases surface area
– Increases air turbulence within the nasal
cavity
• The nasal cavity is separated from the oral
cavity by the palate
– Anterior hard palate (bone)
– Posterior soft palate (muscle)
8. Paranasal Sinuses
• Cavities within bones surrounding the
nasal cavity
– Frontal bone
– Sphenoid bone
– Ethmoid bone
– Maxillary bone
9. Paranasal Sinuses
• Function of the sinuses
– Lighten the skull
– Act as resonance chambers for speech
– Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity Produce mucus that drains into the
nasal cavity
10. Pharynx (Throat)
• Muscular passage from nasal cavity to
larynx
• Three regions of the pharynx
– Nasopharynx – superior region behind nasal
cavity
– Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
– Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached to
larynx
• The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are
common passageways for air and food
11. Structures of the Pharynx
• Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
• Tonsils of the pharynx
– Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the
nasopharynx
– Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
– Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue
12. Larynx (Voice Box)
• Routes air and food into proper channels
• Plays a role in speech
• Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and
a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
(epiglottis)
• Vocal cords - vibrate with expelled air to
create sound (speech)
13. Structures of the Larynx
• Thyroid cartilage
– Largest hyaline cartilage
– Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
• Epiglottis
– Superior opening of the larynx
– Routes food to the larynx and air toward the
trachea
• Glottis – opening between vocal cords
14. Trachea (Windpipe)
• Connects larynx with bronchi
• Lined with ciliated mucosa
– Beat continuously in the opposite direction of
incoming air
– Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
• Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
hyaline cartilage
15. Primary Bronchi
• Formed by division of the trachea
• Enters the lung at the hilus
(medial depression)
• Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left
• Bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches
16. Lungs
• Ocupy most of the thoracic cavity
–Apex is near the clavicle (superior
portion)
–Each lung is divided into lobes by
fissures
• Left lung – two lobes
• Right lung – three lobes
18. Coverings of the Lungs
• Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
lung surface
• Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
thoracic cavity
• Pleural fluid fills the area between layers
of pleura to allow gliding
20. Bronchioles
• Smallest
branches of the
bronchi
• All but the
smallest
branches have
reinforcing
cartilage
• Terminal
bronchioles end
in alveoli
Figure 13.5a
22. Alveoli
• Structure of alveoli
– Alveolar duct
– Alveolar sac
– Alveolus
• Gas exchange takes place within the
alveoli in the respiratory membrane
• Squamous epithelial lining alveolar walls
• Covered with pulmonary capillaries on
external surfaces
24. Gas Exchange
• Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
diffusion
– Oxygen enters the blood
– Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
• Macrophages add protection
• Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar
surfaces
25. Events of Respiration
• Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and
out of the lungs
• External respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
26. Events of Respiration
• Respiratory gas transport – transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
• Internal respiration – gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in systemic
capillaries
27. Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
• Mechanical process
• Depends on volume changes in the
thoracic cavity
• Volume changes lead to pressure
changes, which lead to equalize pressure
of flow of gases
• 2 phases
– Inspiration – flow of air into lung
– Expiration – air leaving lung
28. Inspiration
• Diaphragm and
intercostal muscles
contract
• The size of the
thoracic cavity
increases
• External air is pulled
into the lungs due to
an increase in
intrapulmonary
volume
29. Expiration
• Passive process dependent up on natural
lung elasticity
• As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs
• Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles to
depress the rib cage
31. Pressure Differences in the
Thoracic Cavity
• Normal pressure within the pleural space
is always negative (intrapleural pressure)
• Differences in lung and pleural space
pressures keep lungs from collapsing
32. Nonrespiratory Air Movements
• Caused by reflexes or voluntary actions
• Examples
– Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
– Laughing
– Crying
– Yawn
– Hiccup
33. Respiratory Volumes and
Capacities
• Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with
each breath - tidal volume (TV)
• Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
– A person’s size
– Sex
– Age
– Physical condition
• Residual volume of air – after exhalation, about
1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
34. Respiratory Volumes and
Capacities
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
– Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
over the tidal volume
– Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
– Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
– Approximately 1200 ml
• Residual volume
– Air remaining in lung after expiration
– About 1200 ml
35. Respiratory Volumes and
Capacities
• Functional volume
– Air that actually
reaches the
respiratory zone
– Usually about 350
ml
• Respiratory capacities
are measured with a
spirometer
36. Respiratory Sounds
• Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
• Bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through trachea and bronchi
• Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds
of air filling alveoli
37. External Respiration
• Oxygen movement into the blood
– The alveoli always has more oxygen than the
blood
– Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area
of lower concentration
– Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
38. External Respiration
• Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
– Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in
the alveoli
– Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
• Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and
carbon dioxide-poor
39. Gas Transport in the Blood
• Oxygen transport in the blood
– Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin
(oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
– A small amount is carried dissolved in the
plasma
• Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
– Most is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
– A small amount is carried inside red blood
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding
sites than those of oxygen
40. Internal Respiration
• Exchange of gases between blood and
body cells
• An opposite reaction to what occurs in the
lungs
– Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood
– Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
42. Neural Regulation of
Respiration
• Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to
the brain by the phrenic and intercostal nerves
• Neural centers that control rate & depth are
located in the medulla
• The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
• Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15 min.
• Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due
to extra oxygen needs
43. Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
• Physical factors
– Increased body temperature
– Exercise
– Talking
– Coughing
• Volition (conscious control)
• Emotional factors
44. Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
• Chemical factors
– Carbon dioxide levels
• Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the
main regulatory chemical for respiration
• Increased carbon dioxide increases
respiration
• Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on
the medulla oblongata
45. Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
• Chemical factors (continued)
– Oxygen levels
• Changes in oxygen concentration in the
blood are detected by chemoreceptors in
the aorta and carotid artery
• Information is sent to the medulla
oblongata
46. Respiratory Disorders:
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD)
• Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
• Major causes of death and disability in the
United States
• Features of these diseases
– Patients have a history of smoking
– Labored breathing (dyspnea)
– Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections
47. Respiratory Disorders:
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD)
• Features of these diseases (cont.’)
– Most victims retain carbon dioxide
– Have hypoxic and respiratory acidosis
– Those infected will ultimately develop
respiratory failure
48. Emphysema
• Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break
through
• Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
• Airways collapse during expiration
• Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale
• Over-inflation of the lungs leads to a barrel chest
• Cyanosis appears late in the disease
49. Chronic Bronchitis
• Inflammation of the mucosa of the lower
respiratory passages
• Mucus production increases
• Pooled mucus impairs ventilation & gas
exchange
• Risk of lung infection increases
• Pneumonia is common
• Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early
50. Lung Cancer
• Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the
United States
• Increased incidence associated with
smoking
• Three common types
– Squamous cell carcinoma
– Adenocarcinoma
– Small cell carcinoma
51. Sudden Infant Death syndrome
(SIDS)
• Healthy infant stops breathing and dies
during sleep
• Some cases are thought to be a problem
of the neural respiratory control center
• 1/3 of cases appear to be due to heart
rhythm abnormalities
52. Asthma
• Chronic inflammation if the bronchiole
passages
• Response to irritants with dyspnea, coughing,
and wheezing
53. Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory System
• Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
• Lungs are not fully inflated with air until
two weeks after birth
• Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface
tension is not present until late in fetal
development and may not be present in
premature babies
54. Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory System
• Important birth defects
–Cystic fibrosis – over-secretion of thick
mucus clogs the respiratory system
–Cleft palate
55. Aging Effects
• Elasticity of lungs decreases
• Vital capacity decreases
• Blood oxygen levels decrease
• Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
• More risks of respiratory tract infection
56. Respiratory Rate Changes
Throughout Life
Respiration rate:
• Newborns – 40 to 80 min.
• Infants – 30 min.
• Age 5 – 25 min.
• Adults – 12 to 18 min
• Rate often increases with old age