The cell is the smallest structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms. It can capable of biosynthesis, replication and energy transformation.
What is Cell?
Cell is the smallest unit of life that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body.
An animals cell is a type of eukaryotic call that lacks a cell wall and has a true membrane bound nucleus along with other organelles.
A cell has three main parts:
The cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm.
The nucleus is a structure inside the cell that contains the nucleolus and most of the cell's DNA.
What is Cell?
Cell is the smallest unit of life that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body.
An animals cell is a type of eukaryotic call that lacks a cell wall and has a true membrane bound nucleus along with other organelles.
A cell has three main parts:
The cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm.
The nucleus is a structure inside the cell that contains the nucleolus and most of the cell's DNA.
This presentation contains the introduction to the structure of plasma membrane. This gives an insight into the biochemistry of the plasma membrane and the singer and nicholsan model.
Structure and functions of endoplasmic reticulumICHHA PURAK
The presentation consists of 57 slides,describes following heads
• DISCOVERY
• INTRODUCTION
• BIOGENESIS OF ER
• ISOLATION OF MICROSOMES FROM E R
• STRUCTURE
• COMPONENTS OF ER
CISTERNAE
VESICLES
TUBULES
• MAIN FUNCTION OF ER
• TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER)
• FUNCTIONS OF SER
• ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)
• FUNCTIONS OF RER
• SUMMARY
• REFERENCES
• QUESTIONS
After fertilization, gestation period begins
According to development gestation period divided in to,
i. germinal period ii. embryonic period iii. fetal period
Here the first week of the germinal period is discussed
Zygote undergoes cleavage
The process of each step of cleavage is explained and shown
diagrammatically
The significance of cleavage given.
Formation of morula after the compactum of blastocytes
Pushing of embryoblast towards the animal pole and blastocoel
the formation has taken place.
Formation of blastocyst completed.
A blastocyst is ready for implantation after loosing Zonapellucida.
Implantation begins in the first week of development
Fluid Mosaic Model The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components —including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates—that gives the membrane a fluid character. ... The proportions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane
The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells (or in some cases, a single cell). Most cells are very small; most are invisible without using a microscope. Cells are covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes. The contents of a cell are called the protoplasm.
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus.
DNA in animal cells is housed within the nucleus.
In addition to having nucleus animal cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles.
Organelles have a wide range of responsibilities that include everything from producing hormones and enzymes to providing energy for animal cells.
All living things are made up of cells that make up their body structure. Some of these living things are single-celled and other organisms are made up of more than one cell.
This presentation contains the introduction to the structure of plasma membrane. This gives an insight into the biochemistry of the plasma membrane and the singer and nicholsan model.
Structure and functions of endoplasmic reticulumICHHA PURAK
The presentation consists of 57 slides,describes following heads
• DISCOVERY
• INTRODUCTION
• BIOGENESIS OF ER
• ISOLATION OF MICROSOMES FROM E R
• STRUCTURE
• COMPONENTS OF ER
CISTERNAE
VESICLES
TUBULES
• MAIN FUNCTION OF ER
• TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER)
• FUNCTIONS OF SER
• ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)
• FUNCTIONS OF RER
• SUMMARY
• REFERENCES
• QUESTIONS
After fertilization, gestation period begins
According to development gestation period divided in to,
i. germinal period ii. embryonic period iii. fetal period
Here the first week of the germinal period is discussed
Zygote undergoes cleavage
The process of each step of cleavage is explained and shown
diagrammatically
The significance of cleavage given.
Formation of morula after the compactum of blastocytes
Pushing of embryoblast towards the animal pole and blastocoel
the formation has taken place.
Formation of blastocyst completed.
A blastocyst is ready for implantation after loosing Zonapellucida.
Implantation begins in the first week of development
Fluid Mosaic Model The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components —including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates—that gives the membrane a fluid character. ... The proportions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane
The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells (or in some cases, a single cell). Most cells are very small; most are invisible without using a microscope. Cells are covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes. The contents of a cell are called the protoplasm.
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus.
DNA in animal cells is housed within the nucleus.
In addition to having nucleus animal cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles.
Organelles have a wide range of responsibilities that include everything from producing hormones and enzymes to providing energy for animal cells.
All living things are made up of cells that make up their body structure. Some of these living things are single-celled and other organisms are made up of more than one cell.
An organelle is a specialized subunit that has a specific function. The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures are parts of cells, as organs are to the body, hence organelle. Organelles are either separately enclosed within their own lipid bilayers (also called membrane-bound organelles) or are spatially distinct functional units without a surrounding lipid bilayer (non-membrane bound organelles). Although most organelles are functional units within cells, some functional units that extend outside of cells are often termed organelles, such as cilia, the flagellum and archaellum, and the trichocyst.
Introduction
Structure of Plasma Membranes
Functions of Plasma Membranes
Cytoplasm: Cytosol, Organelles
Functions of Cytoplasm
Ribosome, Functions of Ribosomes
2. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and its Functions
b. Smooth ER and its Functions
3. Golgi complex and its Functions
4.Lysosomes and its Functions
5. Peroxisomes and its Functions
6. Proteasomes and its Functions
7.Mitochondria and its Functions
8. Cytoskeletal
a. Microfilaments and its Functions
b. Intermediate filaments and its Functions
c. Microtubules and its Functions
9. Centrosome and its Functions
10. Cilia and Flagella and its Functions
11. Nucleus and its Functions
a. Nuclear Membrane and its Functions
b. Nucleoplasm and its Functions
c. Chromosomes and its Functions
d. Nucleolus and its Functions
The chapter contain detail descriptions regarding structures and functions of different cell organelles of plant and animal cells which is helpful to UG and PG students of Science. Cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms. The basic constituents of plant and animal cells are the same,
viz nucleic acid, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and various inorganic substances
They organized in the same fundamental manner. The shape of plant cell is rectangular and that of animal cell is round with irregular appearance. Cell organelles various membrane bound structures that are
found within a cell such as nucleus, plastids, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum etc.
This presentation offers the bird's eye view of the cell as the basic structural and functional unit of life. It also addresses the origin of eukaryotic cells from the prokaryotic cell by the endosymbiotic theory.
Similar to Animal cell: Anatomy and Physiology (20)
Pharmacology Experiment based Questions With Answer KeysA M O L D E O R E
MSBTE Pharmacology Practical Exam for Diploma in pharmacy students in Maharashtra.
Experimental pharmacology for D. Pharmacy Students
Pharmacology Experiment based Questions
PCI New Syllabus ER2020
Course Code: 20056
Antidepressants are a class of medication used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain conditions and to help manage addictions. Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting
Anatomy and physiology are two of the most basic terms and areas of study in the life sciences. Anatomy refers to the internal and external structures of the body and their physical relationships, whereas physiology refers to the study of the functions of those structures.
Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and containing a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Unlike the eukaryotic cells of plants and fungi, animal cells do not have a cell wall. This feature was lost in the distant past by the single-celled organisms that gave rise to the kingdom Animalia. Most cells, both animal and plant, range in size between 1 and 100 micrometers and are thus visible only with the aid of a microscope.
All living organisms are made of cells and cellular products. The cell is the smallest structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms. It can capable of biosynthesis, replication and energy transformation. All cellular organelles carry out specific functions that are necessary for the normal functioning of the cell. Animal cells work together and function interdependently. Human cells vary in size, shape, and function. Most animal cells are so small they can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Based on function, there are more than 200 different kinds of animal cells that help each system contribute to the homeostasis of the entire body. Despite their many differences, human cells have several similar structural features: a cell membrane, a nucleus, and cytoplasm and cell organelles.
The term “opiate” refers only to substances with morphine-like activity that are structurally related to morphine. Opioids are sometimes referred to as “narcotic analgesics” and opioid receptor antagonists as “narcotic antagonists”
Sympatholytic drugs (Adrenergic blockers) bind to the adrenergic receptors and prevent the action of adrenergic drugs.
These are drugs which block the actions of sympathetic division or catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline).
They are competitive antagonists at both α and β adrenergic receptors.
Your sympathetic nervous system is best known for its role in responding to dangerous or stressful situations.
In these situations, your sympathetic nervous system activates to speed up your heart rate, deliver more blood to areas of your body that need more oxygen or other responses to help your get out of danger.
Its nerve fibers arise from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord.
The autonomic ganglia are the synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic axons then go to the visceral effectors.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter releases in the preganglionic nerve endings and Noradrenaline at postganglionic nerve endings.
The drugs which mimic the action sympathetic division are called sympathomimetics.
They show similar actions as that of catecholamines.
Sympathomimetic
They act by either by directly interacting with adrenergic receptors (alpha or beta) or stimulation of the adrenergic nerve endings.
The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or digestive tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. ... The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
Hemostasis or haemostasis is a process to prevent and stop bleeding, meaning to keep blood within a damaged blood vessel (the opposite of hemostasis is hemorrhage). It is the first stage of wound healing. This involves coagulation, blood changing from a liquid to a gel.
Aminocaproates.
Antifibrinolytic Agents.
Estrogens, Conjugated (USP)
Hemostatics.
Tranexamic Acid.
Aprotinin.
Deamino Arginine Vasopressin
Sulfonamides (sulphonamides) are a group of man-made (synthetic) medicines that contain the sulfonamide chemical group. They may also be called sulfa drugs. Many people use the term sulfonamide imprecisely to refer only to antibiotics that have a sulfonamide functional group in their chemical structure.
The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
Anticoagulants are used to treat and prevent blood clots that may occur in your blood vessels. Blood clots can block blood vessels (an artery or a vein). A blocked artery stops blood and oxygen from getting to a part of your body (for example, to a part of the heart, brain or lungs).
A tissue is a group of similar cells that are specialized for a particular function.
The four basic fundamental types of body tissues are
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Nervous tissue
Each type of tissue is characterized by specific functions. These tissues contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the body. These tissues combine to form organs. The various organs make up the systems of the body that allow us to function and survive in our complex world. Histology is the science that deals with the study of tissues.
In biology, the tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
The English word "tissue" derives from the French word "tissue", meaning that something that is "woven", from the verb tisse, "to weave".
Career scope and opportunities
Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication. The scope of pharmacy practice includes compounding and dispensing medications, and it also related to more modern services like patient care, including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information.
The demand for pharma graduates is high in sectors like - healthcare, research, manufacturing, medical marketing, pharmacovigilance etc. As a pharma graduate, you can take up job roles like - drugs inspector, drugs controller, hospital pharmacist etc.
Ever hear the term "bronchial asthma" and wonder what it means? When people talk about bronchial asthma, they are really talking about asthma, a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways that causes periodic "attacks" of coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness.
According to the CDC, more than 25 million Americans, including 6.8 million children under age 18, suffer with asthma today.
Allergies are strongly linked to asthma and to other respiratory diseases such as chronic sinusitis, middle ear infections, and nasal polyps. Most interestingly, a recent analysis of people with asthma showed that those who had both allergies and asthma were much more likely to have nighttime awakening due to asthma, miss work because of asthma, and require more powerful medications to control their symptoms.
Asthma is associated with mast cells, eosinophils, and T lymphocytes. Mast cells are the allergy-causing cells that release chemicals like histamine. Histamine is the substance that causes nasal stuffiness and dripping in a cold or hay fever, constriction of airways in asthma, and itchy areas in a skin allergy. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell associated with allergic disease. T lymphocytes are also white blood cells associated with allergy and inflammation.
These cells, along with other inflammatory cells, are involved in the development of airway inflammation in asthma that contributes to the airway hyperresponsiveness, airflow limitation, respiratory symptoms, and chronic disease. In certain individuals, the inflammation results in the feelings of chest tightness and breathlessness that's felt often at night (nocturnal asthma) or in the early morning hours. Others only feel symptoms when they exercise (called exercise-induced asthma). Because of the inflammation, the airway hyperresponsiveness occurs as a result of specific triggers.
These are substances produced by a wide variety of cells in the body, having strong biological activity. Autacoids generally act locally at the site of synthesis and release. So they have also been called ‘local hormones’. They have short duration of action. They usually exert their action at the site of inflammation, lesion and injury.
The autacoids also differ from circulating hormones in that they are produced by many tissues rather than in specific endocrine glands.
The classical autacoids are— Ex.
Histamine, Serotonin
Prostaglandins, Leukotriene, Heparin, Endothelins
Bradykinin, Angiotensin, Eicosanoids
Interleukins, TNFα (tissue necrosis factor),
Platelet activating factor
ANATOMY
Anatomy is the study of the structure or morphology of the body and the physical relationship between body parts.
PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the study of the functions of body parts, what they do, and how they do it.
Within the body, there are different levels of structural organization and complexity.
Parasympatholytics are the drugs that block or inhibit the actions of acetylcholine at postganglionic nerve endings and cholinergic receptors. They are also referred to as anticholinergics or cholinergic blocking agents or antispasmodics.
Anticholinergic drugs include atropine and related drugs- atropine is the prototype. Atropine is obtained from the plant Atropa belladonna. Atropine and scopolamine (hyoscine) are the belladonna alkaloids. They compete with acetylcholine for muscarinic receptors and block this receptors-they are muscarinic antagonists.
The parasympathetic division typically acts in opposition to the sympathetic autonomic nervous system through negative feedback control.
This action is a complementary response, causing a balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic responses.
Overall, the parasympathetic outflow results in the conservation and restoration of energy, reduction in heart rate and blood pressure, facilitation of digestion and absorption of nutrients, and excretion of waste products.
These are drugs that produce actions similar to that of Acetylcholine hence known as parasympathomimetics.
They act either by directly interacting with cholinergic receptors or by increasing the availability of Acetylcholine at these sites.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Are There Any Natural Remedies To Treat Syphilis.pdf
Animal cell: Anatomy and Physiology
1. ANIMAL CELL
Prof. Amol B. Deore
Department of Physiology
MVPS Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nashik
2.
3.
4. • The cell is the smallest structural, functional, and
biological unit of all living organisms which can capable
of biosynthesis, replication and energy transformation.
• They are often called the ‘building blocks of life’.
The cell
5.
6. Cytology is the scientific
study of cellular structure
and function. Organisms
can be classified as
unicellular (consisting of
a single cell; including
bacteria) or multicellular
(including plants and
animals).
While the number of cells
in plants and animals
varies from species to
species, humans contain
about 100 trillion (1014)
cells.
7. All cells arise from existing cells by the process of
cell division, in which one cell divides into two
identical cells.
Different types of cells fulfil unique roles that
support homeostasis and contribute to the many
functional capabilities of the human organism.
8. ■ Most plant and animal cells are visible only under the microscope, with
dimensions between 1 and 100 µm.
■ Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other
membrane bound cellular organelles.These cellular organelles carry
out specific functions that are necessary for the normal functioning of
the cell.
10. PLASMA MEMBRANE
■ A biological membrane that surrounds
the cytoplasm of a cell which covers the
cell.
■ In short, it is the outer boundary of the
cell. It is a thin, elastic structure about 7.5
to 10 nm in thickness.
■ It separates the internal environment
(inside the cell) from the external
environment (outside the cell).
11. ■ The plasma membrane is made up of lipid bilayer, which
contains lipid molecules— phospholipids, cholesterol, and
glycolipids.
■ The bilayer arrangement found because the lipids are
amphipathic molecules, which means that they have both polar
and nonpolar parts.
■ The polar part is made up of phosphate containing “head,”
which is hydrophilic (hydro means water; philic means loving).
■ The nonpolar part is made up of two long fatty acid “tails,”
which are hydrophobic (-phobic means fearing).
12.
13. FUNCTIONS
• The membrane allow the passage of different nutrients and
electrolyte ions into and out of a cell.
• The plasma membrane also plays a vital role in
communication between cells to cells.
• Plasma membranes also contain proteins that allow cells to
detect external signalling molecules such as hormones.
14. CYTOPLASM
■ The intracellular substance in which all cell organelles are
suspended is known as cytoplasm.
■ Cytoplasm is a viscous, transparent, gel like semisolid fluid
containing 75-90% water, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, organic
substances including amino acids, sugars polysaccharides and
inorganic substances such as mineral ions.
15. NUCLEUS The nuclear membrane is composed of
two membranes i.e. inner and outer
nuclear membranes.
The inner membrane surrounds and
contains the nucleoplasm and its
materials.
The outer membrane is continuous with
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Both are made up of phospholipid bilayers
and nuclear pores.
These pores allow the passage of
materials from the nucleoplasm into the
cytoplasm.
For example, messenger RNA (mRNA)
and various proteins.
16. NUCLEOPLASM
The fluid medium of the nucleus is called the
nucleoplasm.
It consists of proteins, the nucleic acids DNA, RNA,
enzymes, and other chemicals of the nucleus.
CHROMATIN
The cells of the human body contain 46
chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair
of sex chromosomes: one member of each pair
comes from the father and one member from the
mother).
17. The egg cell (ovum) and the sperm cell contain one half that number or 23
chromosomes.
Chromosomes are supercoiled structures of chromatins and act as genetic
material of the cell.
Each chromatin consists of million numbers of DNA molecules.
Each DNA molecule is made up of sequence of amino acids.
18. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
■ It is a complex system composed of membrane
bound cavities.
■ The cavities are channel-like structures called as
cisternae which are used to store and transport
materials made by the cell.
■ The ER is attached to the outer membrane of
the nuclear membrane.
■ The endoplasmic reticulum ER is divided in to
two types.
1] Rough (granular) ER composed of
ribosomes;
2] Smooth (agranular) ER has no ribosomes.
19.
20. Rough ER
All cells have a rough endoplasmic reticulum.
It is also called as granular endoplasmic reticulum because it contains ribosomes.
The rough ER is the site of protein biosynthesis.
The cavities of the rough ER work in the separation and transport of these proteins.
21.
22. Smooth ER
Smooth (or agranular) endoplasmic reticulum does not have attached
ribosomes. It also differs in function.
Only certain cells have the smooth ER including adrenal gland, sex glands
(ovary and testes), adipose tissues, liver, small intestine, pancreas etc.
Smooth ER performs biosynthesis of steroidal hormones, sex hormones
digestive enzymes, fatty acid, phospholipids, triglycerides and cholesterol.
Enzymes within the smooth ER can detoxify a variety of chemicals
including alcohol and certain drugs.
23. RIBOSOMES
■ There are many, many ribosomes in the cell because they are so essential to cell
function.
■ Free ribosomes are small tiny granules distributed throughout the cytoplasm and
some are attached to the rough-granular endoplasmic reticulum.
■ They are the actual sites of protein synthesis. Free ribosomes synthesise proteins
which are utilized for the metabolism of the cell and growth.
■ The attached ribosomes are the sites for the protein synthesis to be secreted by the
cell. Ribosomes are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and several ribosomal
proteins.
■ Messenger RNA (mRNA) attaches to ribosomes during proteins synthesis.
24. GOLGI APPARATUS
■ The Golgi apparatus is also called as
Golgi body.The shape of Golgi
apparatus is like a tea cup. It may be
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
■ They are covered by two membranes:
Inner membrane and outer membrane.
■ The inner membrane is composed of
number of folds/cavities called as
cisterns.
■ The Golgi apparatus also consists of
secretory vesicles.
25.
26. ■ Carbohydrates synthesis like glucose takes place in the Golgi
apparatus.
■ Proteins formed by ribosomes are stored in the secretory vesicles of
Golgi apparatus.
■ In the pancreas, the digestive enzymes are stored in Golgi apparatus
and then are secreted.
■ The secretory vesicles of Golgi bodies which are composed of digestive
enzymes further develop in to Lysosomes.
■ The Golgi bodies also perform processing, sorting, packaging and
transport of lipids and proteins to cell membrane, lysosomes, and
secretory vesicles.
Functions
27.
28. All the proteins exported from the cell follow the similar route
Ribosomes (site of protein synthesis) Rough ER Transport vesicles
Golgi apparatus Secretory vesicles
Proteins release to outside of the cell by exocytosis
29.
30.
31. MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondrion is a bean-shaped
organelle that acts as a “energy
transformer” of the cell.
They are the site of cellular
respiration and energy
metabolism.
They act by generating ATP, an
energy rich molecule.
32. They are usually 3-4 µm in size.The number of mitochondria varies in
different types of cells.
Cells with high metabolic activity have high number of mitochondria,
while those with low metabolic activity have a lower number.
There are about 1600-2000 mitochondria present in liver cells, muscle
cells, kidney, while sperm cells contain only 20-24.
Mitochondria are composed of two membranes.The outer membrane
is smooth gives its capsule shape to mitochondrion;
while the inner membrane is arranged in a series of folds called as
cristae.The central cavity of a mitochondrion is called as the matrix.
33.
34. The matrix contains DNA, some proteins, ribosomes
and several enzymes required for metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids (citric acid cycle,
β-oxidation, oxidative phosphorylation).
These reactions convert nutrient molecules (such as
glucose) intoATP, which provides cellular energy to the
cell.
Oxygen molecules are required during cellular
respiration, which is why you must constantly breathe
it in.
35.
36. The cellular respiration can be stated as follows:
Food (like glucose) + oxygen Energy + waste+ water
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O
Most of the energy-producing reactions, which occur in the
mitochondria, take place on the surface of the cristae.
For this reason, the mitochondria are known as the
powerhouses of the cell.