This document discusses nuclear chemistry and includes the following key points: - Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons and mass number (A) is the number of protons + neutrons. - Nuclear equations must balance mass number and atomic number. - Radioactive decay occurs through alpha, beta, and positron emission or electron capture to achieve nuclear stability. - The rate of radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics and half-life can be used for radioactive dating.

1. Nuclear Chemistry
Chapter 23
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. XA
Z
Mass Number
Atomic Number
Element Symbol
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
A
Z
1
p1
1
H1or
proton
1
n0
neutron
0
e-1
0
β-1or
electron
0
e+1
0
β+1or
positron
4
He2
4
α2or
α particle
1
1
1
0
0
-1
0
+1
4
2
23.1

3. Balancing Nuclear Equations
1. Conserve mass number (A).
The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal
the sum of protons plus neutrons in the reactants.
1
n0U235
92 + Cs138
55 Rb96
37
1
n0+ + 2
235 + 1 = 138 + 96 + 2x1
2. Conserve atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge.
The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the
sum of nuclear charges in the reactants.
1
n0U235
92 + Cs138
55 Rb96
37
1
n0+ + 2
92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0
23.1

4. 212
Po decays by alpha emission. Write the balanced
nuclear equation for the decay of 212
Po.
4
He2
4
α2oralpha particle -
212
Po 4
He + A
X84 2 Z
212 = 4 + A A = 208
84 = 2 + Z Z = 82
212
Po 4
He + 208
Pb84 2 82
23.1

5. 23.1

6. Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay
Beta decay
14
C 14
N + 0
β + ν6 7 -1
40
K 40
Ca + 0
β + ν19 20 -1
1
n 1
p + 0
β + ν0 1 -1
Decrease # of neutrons by 1
Increase # of protons by 1
Positron decay
11
C 11
B + 0
β + ν6 5 +1
38
K 38
Ar + 0
β + ν19 18 +1
1
p 1
n + 0
β + ν1 0 +1
Increase # of neutrons by 1
Decrease # of protons by 1
ν and ν have A = 0 and Z = 0
23.2

7. Electron capture decay
Increase # of neutrons by 1
Decrease # of protons by 1
Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay
37
Ar + 0
e 37
Cl + ν18 17-1
55
Fe + 0
e 55
Mn + ν26 25-1
1
p + 0
e 1
n + ν1 0-1
Alpha decay
Decrease # of neutrons by 2
Decrease # of protons by 2
212
Po 4
He + 208
Pb84 2 82
Spontaneous fission
252
Cf 2125
In + 21
n98 49 0
23.2

8. n/p too large
beta decay
X
n/p too small
positron decay or electron capture
Y
23.2

9. Nuclear Stability
• Certain numbers of neutrons and protons are extra stable
• n or p = 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126
• Like extra stable numbers of electrons in noble gases
(e-
= 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86)
• Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons
are more stable than those with odd numbers of neutron
and protons
• All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher
than 83 are radioactive
• All isotopes of Tc and Pm are radioactive
23.2

10. Nuclear binding energy (BE) is the energy required to break
up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons.
BE + 19
F 91
p + 101
n9 1 0
BE = 9 x (p mass) + 10 x (n mass) – 19
F mass
E = mc2
BE (amu) = 9 x 1.007825 + 10 x 1.008665 – 18.9984
BE = 0.1587 amu 1 amu = 1.49 x 10-10
J
BE = 2.37 x 10-11
J
binding energy per nucleon =
binding energy
number of nucleons
=
2.37 x 10-11
J
19 nucleons
= 1.25 x 10-12
J
23.2

11. Nuclear binding energy per nucleon vs Mass number
nuclear stability
23.2
nuclear binding energy
nucleon

12. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
N daughter
rate = -
∆N
∆t
rate = λN
∆N
∆t
= λN-
N = N0exp(-λt) lnN = lnN0 - λt
N = the number of atoms at time t
N0 = the number of atoms at time t = 0
λ is the decay constant
ln2
=
t½
λ
23.3

13. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
[N] = [N]0exp(-λt) ln[N] = ln[N]0 - λt
[N]
ln[N]
23.3

14. Radiocarbon Dating
14
N + 1
n 14
C + 1
H7 160
14
C 14
N + 0
β + ν6 7 -1 t½ = 5730 years
Uranium-238 Dating
238
U 206
Pb + 8 4
α + 6 0
β92 -182 2 t½ = 4.51 x 109
years
23.3

15. Nuclear Transmutation
Cyclotron Particle Accelerator
14
N + 4
α 17
O + 1
p7 2 8 1
27
Al + 4
α 30
P + 1
n13 2 15 0
14
N + 1
p 11
C + 4
α7 1 6 2
23.4

16. Nuclear Transmutation
23.4

17. Nuclear Fission
23.5
235
U + 1
n 90
Sr + 143
Xe + 31
n + Energy92 54380 0
Energy = [mass 235
U + mass n – (mass 90
Sr + mass 143
Xe + 3 x mass n )] x c2
Energy = 3.3 x 10-11
J per 235
U
= 2.0 x 1013
J per mole 235
U
Combustion of 1 ton of coal = 5 x 107
J

18. Nuclear Fission
23.5
235
U + 1
n 90
Sr + 143
Xe + 31
n + Energy92 54380 0
Representative fission reaction

19. Nuclear Fission
23.5
Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of
nuclear fission reactions.
The minimum mass of fissionable material required to
generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is the
critical mass.
Non-critical
Critical

20. Schematic Diagram of a Nuclear Reactor
23.5

21. Annual Waste Production
23.5
35,000 tons SO2
4.5 x 106
tons CO2
1,000 MW coal-fired
power plant
3.5 x 106
ft3
ash
1,000 MW nuclear
power plant
70 ft3
vitrified
waste
Nuclear Fission

22. 23.5
Nuclear Fission
Hazards of the
radioactivities in spent
fuel compared to
uranium ore
From “Science, Society and America’s Nuclear Waste,” DOE/RW-0361 TG

23. Chemistry In Action: Nature’s Own Fission Reactor
Natural Uranium
0.7202 % U-235 99.2798% U-238
Measured at Oklo
0.7171 % U-235

24. 23.6
Nuclear Fusion
2
H + 2
H 3
H + 1
H1 1 1 1
Fusion Reaction Energy Released
2
H + 3
H 4
He + 1
n1 1 2 0
6
Li + 2
H 2 4
He3 1 2
6.3 x 10-13
J
2.8 x 10-12
J
3.6 x 10-12
J
Tokamak
magnetic plasma
confinement

25. 23.7
Radioisotopes in Medicine
• 1 out of every 3 hospital patients will undergo a nuclear
medicine procedure
• 24
Na, t½ = 14.8 hr, β emitter, blood-flow tracer
• 131
I, t½ = 14.8 hr, β emitter, thyroid gland activity
• 123
I, t½ = 13.3 hr, γ−ray emitter, brain imaging
• 18
F, t½ = 1.8 hr, β+
emitter, positron emission tomography
• 99m
Tc, t½ = 6 hr, γ−ray emitter, imaging agent
Brain images
with 123
I-labeled
compound

26. 23.7
Radioisotopes in Medicine
98
Mo + 1
n 99
Mo42 0 42
235
U + 1
n 99
Mo + other fission products92 0 42
99m
Tc 99
Tc + γ-ray43 43
99
Mo 99m
Tc + 0
β + ν42 43 -1
Research production of 99
Mo
Commercial production of 99
Mo
t½ = 66 hours
t½ = 6 hours
Bone Scan with
99m
Tc

27. Geiger-Müller Counter
23.7

28. 23.8
Biological Effects of Radiation
Radiation absorbed dose (rad)
1 rad = 1 x 10-5
J/g of material
Roentgen equivalent for man (rem)
1 rem = 1 rad x Q Quality Factor
γ-ray = 1
β = 1
α = 20

29. Chemistry In Action: Food Irradiation
Dosage Effect
Up to 100 kilorad
Inhibits sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlics.
Inactivates trichinae in pork. Kills or prevents insects
from reproducing in grains, fruits, and vegetables.
100 – 1000 kilorads
Delays spoilage of meat poultry and fish. Reduces
salmonella. Extends shelf life of some fruit.
1000 to 10,000 kilorads
Sterilizes meat, poultry and fish. Kills insects and
microorganisms in spices and seasoning.