INVESTIGATE THE PROPERTIES OF IONIC BOND AND COVALENT BOND THROUGH AN EXPERIMENTMISS ESTHER
CHEMISTRY FORM 4 KSSM
CHAPTER 5 : CHEMICAL BONDS (IONIC BOND AND COVALENT BOND)
EXPERIMENT 5.1 TO INVESTIGATE THE PROPERTIES OF IONIC BOND AND COVALENT BOND THROUGH EXPERIMENT
INVESTIGATE THE PROPERTIES OF IONIC BOND AND COVALENT BOND THROUGH AN EXPERIMENTMISS ESTHER
CHEMISTRY FORM 4 KSSM
CHAPTER 5 : CHEMICAL BONDS (IONIC BOND AND COVALENT BOND)
EXPERIMENT 5.1 TO INVESTIGATE THE PROPERTIES OF IONIC BOND AND COVALENT BOND THROUGH EXPERIMENT
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 solved past paper . For solved papers for over 10 years along with thousands of resources, join yearly membership : www.smartexamresources.com. USE coupon code: FREEDOM40 to get 40% discount on all products that you purchase
I Hope You all like it very much. I wish it is beneficial for all of you and you can get enough knowledge from it. Clear and appropriate objectives, in terms of what the audience ought to feel, think, and do as a result of seeing the presentation. Objectives are realistic – and may be intermediate parts of a wider plan.
Online learning to understand the concept and application of chemicals on the topic of salt. These slides were uploaded to help students understand the basic concepts of chemistry. Independent study in Freestyle.com
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 solved past paper . For solved papers for over 10 years along with thousands of resources, join yearly membership : www.smartexamresources.com. USE coupon code: FREEDOM40 to get 40% discount on all products that you purchase
I Hope You all like it very much. I wish it is beneficial for all of you and you can get enough knowledge from it. Clear and appropriate objectives, in terms of what the audience ought to feel, think, and do as a result of seeing the presentation. Objectives are realistic – and may be intermediate parts of a wider plan.
Online learning to understand the concept and application of chemicals on the topic of salt. These slides were uploaded to help students understand the basic concepts of chemistry. Independent study in Freestyle.com
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Alt. GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using ...James Anderson
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The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
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Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
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Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
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We will explore the capabilities of AI in understanding XML markup languages and autonomously creating structured XML content. Additionally, we will examine the capacity of AI to enrich plain text with appropriate XML markup. Practical examples and methodological guidelines will be provided to elucidate how AI can be effectively prompted to interpret and generate accurate XML markup.
Further emphasis will be placed on the role of AI in developing XSLT, or schemas such as XSD and Schematron. We will address the techniques and strategies adopted to create prompts for generating code, explaining code, or refactoring the code, and the results achieved.
The discussion will extend to how AI can be used to transform XML content. In particular, the focus will be on the use of AI XPath extension functions in XSLT, Schematron, Schematron Quick Fixes, or for XML content refactoring.
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2. CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES
ELECTROLYTES NON-ELECTROLYTES
Substances that can conduct Substances that cannot
electricity when they are in conduct electricity either in
molten state or aqueous and molten state or aqueous
undergo chemical changes
Example:
Example:
Covalent substances
Ionic substances
(iii) Naphthalene
(iii) Dilute acid solution
(iv) Sugar solution
(iv) Dilute alkaline solution
(v) Latex
(v) Molten salts
(vi) Hydrogen chloride in organic
(vi) Aqueous salt solution solvents
3. switch
switch
Carbon
Bulb Bulb
electrodes Carbon
electrodes
…. …. ….
….
….
…. ..
… ………..
….
…………. …. …. ….
…. …. ….
….
… ……….
Heat
Heat
Solid lead (II) iodide Molten lead (II) iodide
4. IN A SOLID STATE
•Do not conduct
electricity
Pb 2+ I- Pb 2+ I-
•This is because the
Pb 2+ I- Pb 2+ I- Pb 2+
ions are held in a
Pb 2+ I- Pb 2+ I- fixed crystal lattice.
Solid lead (II) iodide
•They are held with
the strong
electrostatic forces
of attraction
•Do not freely move
5. IN A MOLTEN STATE
Pb 2+ Pb 2+
-
•Can conduct
I
I - electricity
I-
Pb 2+ •This is because the
presence of moving
ions. The ions are
free to move in the
molten or aqueous
solution
Molten lead (II) iodide
6. ELECTROLYTES AND NON
ELECTROLYTES
Classify the following chemicals into electrolytes or non-
electrolytes
Potassium chloride, KCl solution
Molten lead (II) bromide, PbBr2
Glucose solution
Trichloromethane
Molten zinc oxide, ZnO
Sodium chloride, NaCl solution
Ammonia in tetrachloromethane
7. ELECTROLYSIS
A process of breaking down the chemical
compounds into their constituent elements using
electric current
Example: Electric current
Molten aluminium oxide (I) aluminium (s) + oxygen (g)
Electric current
Copper (II) chloride (aq) copper (s) + chlorine (g)
9. ELECTROLYTIC CELL
The set of apparatus needed to conduct
electrolysis
It consists of a battery, an electrolyte, and two
electrodes (anode and cathode)
Anode - the electrode which is connected to the
positive terminal of an electric source in the
electrolytic cell
Cathode - the electrode which is connected to
the negative terminal of an electric source in the
electrolytic cell
10. During electrolysis:
ANODE CATHODE
(POSITIVE ELECTRODE) (NEGATIVE ELECTRODE)
Anions (negative ions) Cations (positive ions) will
will be pulled towards be pulled towards the
the anode (positive cathode (negative
electrode) electrode)
At the anode, anions At the cathode, cations will
will be discharged by be discharged by receiving
releasing the electrons the electrons from the
to the anode cathode
12. QUESTIONS
(a) Molten zinc chloride (I) Electric current
(b) Molten aluminium (III) bromide Electric current
(c) Molten zinc (II) iodide Electric current
(d) Molten lead (II) oxide Electric current
13. Example 1
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode …… ……………… ….. electrode
…. ….. …… … ….
.. . …….. …… … …
Molten Potassium
……………………………………... Iodide, KI
The ions that presents in electrolyte are:
(ii) Anion:
(iii) Cation:
14. Example 2
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode …… ……………… ….. electrode
…. ….. …… … ….
.. . …….. …… … …
……………………………………... Molten zinc oxide,
ZnO
The ions that presents in electrolyte are:
(ii) Anion:
(iii) Cation:
15. Example 3
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode …… ……………… ….. electrode
…. ….. …… … ….
.. . …….. …… … …
Molten lead (II)
……………………………………... bromide, PbBr2
The ions that presents in electrolyte are:
(ii) Anion:
(iii) Cation:
16. Example 4
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode …… ……………… ….. electrode
…. ….. …… … ….
.. . …….. …… … …
Molten lead (II) oxide,
……………………………………... PbO
The ions that presents in electrolyte are:
(ii) Anion:
(iii) Cation:
17. Example 5
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode …… ……………… ….. electrode
…. ….. …… … ….
.. . …….. …… … …
……………………………………... Molten zinc (II)
chloride, ZnCl2
The ions that presents in electrolyte are:
(ii) Anion:
(iii) Cation:
18. ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN
COMPOUND
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode …… ……………… ….. electrode
…. ….. …… … ….
.. . …….. …… … …
Molten lead (II)
……………………………………... bromide, PbBr2
The ions that presents in electrolyte are:
(ii) Anion:
(iii) Cation:
20. ANODE CATHODE
(POSITIVE ELECTRODE) (NEGATIVE ELECTRODE)
Br- are attracted to anode Pb2+ are attracted to the cathode
Br- discharge by releasing electrons to the
anode Pb2+ discharge by receiving electrons
Br- Br + e-
(provided by the battery) at the cathode
to form neutral lead atoms
Neutral atoms form and combine to form
neutral bromine molecules
The half reaction at cathode can be
Br + Br Br2 (g) represented by the half equation
Pb2+(l) + 2e- Pb (s)
The half reaction at anode can be
represented by the half equation
2Br- (l) Br2 (g) + 2e-
21. The Half Equation:
2+ -
Cathode: Pb (l) + 2e Pb (s)
Anode: 2Br- (l) Br2 (g) + 2e-
Overall Equation:
Pb2+(l) + 2Br- (l) Pb(s) + Br2 (g)
22. Write the half equation and the overall
equation for the electrolysis of these
molten compounds :
(A) Molten potassium iodide, KI
(B) Molten zinc (II) chloride, ZnCl2
(C) Molten lead (II) oxide, PbO
23. ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTION
Water molecules in an aqueous solution can slightly dissociate to
produce H+ and OH-
H2O H+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
So, aqueous solution contains H+ and OH- and electrolyte ions
Examples:
Ions present
Aqueous Solution Anion Cation
NaCl solution Cl- , OH- Na+ , H+
CuSO4 solution
HNO3 solution
24. If they are more than one cations or anions
attracted, the choice of ion to be discharged
depends on :
Positions of the ions
in the electrochemical series
Concentration of ions
in the electrolyte
Types of
electrodes
25. Electrochemical Series (pg.101)
CATIONS ANIONS
K+
F-
Na+
Ca2+ SO42-
Mg2+ NO3-
Al 3+
Cl-
Zn2+
Fe2+ Br-
Sn2+ I-
Pb2+ OH-
H+
Tendency to
Cu2+ discharge
Ag+ increases
26. Positions of the ions
in the electrochemical series
e- e-
e - e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode electrode
OH- Cu2+
Cl- H+
OH-
Cu2+
Cl - H+ Copper (II) chloride
solution, CuCl2
27. Positions of the ions
in the electrochemical series
Anode Cathode
Ions that are OH- , Cl- H+ , Cu2+
attracted OH- are preferred to be Cu2+are preferred to be
discharged discharged
(OH- is below Cl- in the ES) (Cu2+ is below H+ in the ES)
Observation
Bubbles of gas, O2
and Brown solid, Cu is formed
Product is released
4OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
Half equation Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
+ 4 e-
28. Concentration of ions in
electrolyte solutions
Concentration of ions in electrolyte solution also
can affects the choice of ions to be discharged
An ion that is more concentrated is preferably
discharged
Anode – the ions to be discharged is
determined by the concentration of ions
Cathode – the ions to be discharged is
determined by the position of the ion in the
E.S
29. Concentration of ions in
electrolyte solutions
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Carbon Carbon
electrode electrode
OH-
Cu2+
Cl - H+ Concentrated
copper (II) chloride
solution, CuCl2
30. Concentration of ions in
electrolyte solutions
Anode Cathode
Ions that are OH- , Cl- H+ , Cu2+
attracted
Cl- are preferred to be Cu2+are preferred to be
discharged discharged
(Cl- is more concentrated) (Cu2+ is below H+ in the ES)
Observation Brown solid, Cu is formed
Yellow bubbles gas, Cl2
and
Product is released
Half equation 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + 2 e- Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
31. Types of Electrodes
e- e-
-
e e-
+ (anode) - (cathode)
Silver plate Carbon
electrode
Ag+ Ag+ Ag Silver nitrate, AgNO3
solution
32. Types of Electrodes
Anode Cathode
Ions
Ag atom releases one Ag+ receives one electron to
electron to form Ag+ form metal atoms
Observation
and The silver plate corrodes Grey silver solid, Ag is
Product formed
Half equation Ag (s) Ag+ (aq) + e- Ag+ (aq) + e- Ag (s)
33. Exercises
Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4, solution
using carbon electrodes
Anode Cathode
Ions that are
attracted
Ion that are
prefer to be
discharged
Observation
Product
Half equation
34. Exercises
Electrolysis of concentrated potassium chloride, KCl,
solution using carbon electrodes
Anode Cathode
Ions that are
attracted
Ion that are
prefer to be
discharged
Observation
Product
Half equation
35. Exercises
Electrolysis of nickel (II) sulphate, NiSO4, solution
using nickel plate as anode and cathode
Anode Cathode
Half equation
Observation
Product
36. Factors that influence electrolysis of
aqueous solutions
POSITION OF IONS
IN THE ELECTROCHEMICAL
SERIES
CONCENTRATION OF IONS
IN THE ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION
TYPES OF ELECTRODES
37. EXTRACTION OF METALS
USES OF ELECTROLYSIS
IN INDUSTRIES
Reacts with a carbonate
metal to form carbon OF
PURIFICATION ELECTROPLATING
dioxide gas (CO2),water
METALS OF METALS
(H2O) and salt
38. Extraction of Metals
Electrolysis can be used to extract metals from
their ores
Reactive metals that are more reactive than C
such as (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al) cannot be
extracted through heating of their metal
oxides with C
They need to be extracted from their molten
ores using the electrolysis process
In this process:
Electrolyte The molten ore
Anode Carbon electrode
Cathode Carbon electrode
39. Example:
Extraction of aluminium from electrolysis
of molten aluminium oxide, Al2O3
40. Purification of Metals
Metals that have been extracted from their
ores are normally not pure. They contains
impurities which need to be removed
These metals can be purified by electrolysis
process
In the purification process
Electrolyte The solution that contains
the metal ions
Anode The impure metal plate
Cathode The pure metal plate
42. Electroplating of Metals
Many types of metals can be plated with other
metals through electrolysis.
The aim of metal plating through electrolysis
includes:
(i) making the metal more resistant to corrosion
(ii) making the metal appear more attractive
In the electroplating process
Electrolyte The solution which contains
ions of plating metal
Anode Plating metal
Cathode Metal to be plated
43. Example:
Electroplating of a iron spoon with copper
metal
45. VOLTAIC CELL
e- e-
V
e- e-
- (anode) + (cathode)
Zn
Cu
Copper (II)
sulphate
Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
46. VOLTAIC CELL
Also known as galvanic cell
Has two different metals which are immersed
into an electrolyte and connected by wire
Produces electrical energy from the chemical
reactions occurring inside the cell
Chemical energy electrical energy
Example : Daniell cell
47. DANIELL CELL
e- e-
V
e- e-
Zn (-) Cu (+)
(Anode) (Cathode)
Dilute H2SO4
(Salt bridge)
ZnSO4 solution
CuSO4
solution
Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
48. SALT BRIDGE
Can be made from any electrolyte that does not
react with the electrodes in Daniell Cell
Function :
(i) to allow the flow of the ions so the electric
current is completed
Example:
(i) diluted H2SO4
(ii) sodium nitrate, NaNO3 solution
(iii) Potassium chloride solution, KCl
49. DANIELL CELL
e- e-
V
e- e-
Zn (-) Cu (+)
(Cathode)
(Anode)
CuSO4
solution
Porous
pot
contains
ZnSO4
50. Reactivity Series
METALS
MORE
ELECTROPOSITIVE
K
Na (negative terminal)
Ca
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe
Sn
Pb MORE
ELECTRONEGATIVE
H
Cu (positive terminal)
Ag
51. Anode and Cathode
Anode – the electrode where the process of
donation of electrons takes place
Cathode – the electrode where the process of
receiving of electrons takes place
ELECTROLYTIC CELL VOLTAIC CELL
Negative terminal – Cathode Negative terminal – Anode
Positive terminal - Anode Positive terminal - Cathode
53. Electrochemical Series (pg.101)
CATIONS ANIONS
K+
F-
Na+
Ca2+ SO42-
Mg2+ NO3-
Al 3+
Cl-
Zn2+
Fe2+ Br-
Sn2+ I-
Pb2+ OH-
H+
Tendency to
Cu2+ discharge
Ag+ increases
54. ELECTROCHEMICAL
SERIES
An arrangement of metals, based on the
tendency of each metal atom to donate electrons
55. ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES
The higher the position of a metal in the
electrochemical series:
More electropositive The greater the tendency
of the metal atoms to
donate electrons
56. PRINCIPLES DURING CONSTRUCTING
THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES
Potential differences Ability of a metal to
between two metals in the displace another metal
voltaic cell from its salt solution
57. Potential differences between two
metals in the voltaic cell
When two different metals are immersed in an electrolyte
solution, a potential difference is generated
The value of the potential difference of a simple voltaic
cell is affected by the position of the metals in the
electrochemical series
The further the two metals in the electrochemical series
The larger the value of the cell voltage is produced
58. Potential differences between two
metals in the voltaic cell
The metal that is more
electropositive
Located higher in the Act as the negative terminal
electrochemical series
The metal that is less
electropositive
Located lower in the Act as the positive terminal
electrochemical series
59. Potential differences between two
metals in the voltaic cell
Mg
Zn
3.0 V
Pb
1.1 V
0.4 V
Cu
0.5 V
Ag
Predict the negative terminal, positive terminal and cell
voltage of the following voltaic cell
(b) Magnesium and silver (c) zinc and lead
(c) Magnesium and zinc (d) zinc and silver
60. Metal Displacement
A metal that is more electropositive can displace
another metal which is less electropositive from
its salt solution
A metal that is located higher in the electrochemical
series can displace another metal which is located
lower in the electrochemical series from its salt
solution
This reaction – displacement reaction
61. Metal Displacement
Example:
Zinc, Zn can displace copper, Cu, from copper (II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2
solution
Zn (s) + Cu(NO3)2 (aq) Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + Cu (s)
Metal
displaced
• Zn is more electropositive than copper
• Zn can displace Cu from copper (II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 solution
• The zinc, Zn, will dissolve and brown copper solid, Cu, will form
62. It can determined the terminals of voltaic cells
IMPORTANCE OF THE
ELECTROCHEMICAL
SERIES
Reacts with a carbonate
It can determined the It can predicted the
metal voltage carbon
cell to form for a pair of potential of a metal to
dioxide gasmetals
(CO2),water displace another metal
(H2O) and salt from its solution