This document provides an overview of chemical thermodynamics, including:
- The first law of thermodynamics which states that change in internal energy equals heat added plus work done.
- The second law of thermodynamics which states that the entropy of the universe increases for spontaneous processes.
- How changes in entropy and free energy determine whether processes are spontaneous, with spontaneous processes favoring higher entropy and more negative free energy.
Topic Contains:
What is Thermo Chemistry ?
Define Origin of Heat of Reaction..
Exothermic Reaction..
Endothermic Reaction..
Graphical representation of Exothermic
and Endothermic reactions..
Different type of heat reactions..
Hess’s law..
Lecture materials for the Introductory Chemistry course for Forensic Scientists, University of Lincoln, UK. See http://forensicchemistry.lincoln.ac.uk/ for more details.
Topic Contains:
What is Thermo Chemistry ?
Define Origin of Heat of Reaction..
Exothermic Reaction..
Endothermic Reaction..
Graphical representation of Exothermic
and Endothermic reactions..
Different type of heat reactions..
Hess’s law..
Lecture materials for the Introductory Chemistry course for Forensic Scientists, University of Lincoln, UK. See http://forensicchemistry.lincoln.ac.uk/ for more details.
Second law of thermodynamics (and third law of thermodynamics) as taught in introductory physical chemistry (including general chemistry). Covers concepts such as entropy, Gibbs free energy, and phase equilibrium.
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
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Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
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2. Chemical Thermodynamics
• The chemistry that deals with energy
exchange, entropy, and the spontaneity of a
chemical process.
3. Thermodynamics vs. Kinetics
• Kinetics Domain
Rate of a reaction
depends on the
pathway from
reactants to products.
• Thermodynamics tells
us whether a reaction is
spontaneous based only
on the properties of
reactants and products.
4. First Law of Thermodynamics
• The change in the internal energy (DE) of a
thermodynamic system is equal to the amount
of heat energy (q) added to or lost by the
system plus work done (w) on or by the
system.
DE = q + w
• For work that only involves gas expansion or
compression, w = -pDV;
5. Values of Thermodynamic Functions
• FLoT: DE = q + w;
– q is assigned a positive value if heat is absorbed,
but a negative value if heat is lost by the system;
– w is assigned a positive value if work is done on,
but a negative value if work is done by the system.
– For processes that do not involve phase changes,
positive DE results in temperature increase.
6. Spontaneous Processes and Entropy
• Thermodynamics lets us predict whether a
process will occur but gives no information
about the amount of time required for the
process.
• A spontaneous process is one that occurs
without outside intervention.
7. Concept Check
Consider 2.4 moles of a gas contained in a 4.0
L bulb at a constant temperature of 32°C. This
bulb is connected by a valve to an evacuated
20.0 L bulb. Assume the temperature is
constant.
a)What should happen to the gas when you
open the valve?
8. Concept Check
Consider 2.4 moles of a gas contained in a 4.0
L bulb at a constant temperature of 32°C. This
bulb is connected by a valve to an evacuated
20.0 L bulb. Assume the temperature is
constant.
b) Calculate DH, DE, q, and w for the process
you described above.
All are equal to zero.
9. Concept Check
Consider 2.4 moles of a gas contained in a 4.0 L
bulb at a constant temperature of 32°C. This bulb is
connected by a valve to an evacuated 20.0 L bulb.
Assume the temperature is constant.
c) Given your answer to part b, what is the
driving force for the process?
Entropy
11. Entropy
• Thermodynamic function that describes the
number of arrangements that are available to a
system existing in a given state.
12. What is Entropy?
• A thermodynamic (energy) function that
describes the degree of randomness or
probability of existence.
• As a state function – entropy change depends
only on the initial and final states, but not on
how the change occurs.
13. Entropy
• The driving force for a spontaneous process
is an increase in the entropy of the universe.
14. What is the significance of entropy?
• Nature spontaneously proceeds toward the
state that has the highest probability of
(energy) existence – highest entropy
• Entropy is used to predict whether a given
process/reaction is thermodynamically
possible;
17. Positional Entropy
• A gas expands into a vacuum because the
expanded state has the highest positional
probability of states available to the system.
• Therefore: Ssolid < Sliquid << Sgas
20. Concept Check
Predict the sign of DS for each of the
following, and explain:
a) The evaporation of alcohol
b) The freezing of water
c) Compressing an ideal gas at constant
temperature
d) Heating an ideal gas at constant pressure
e) Dissolving NaCl in water
21. Relative Entropy of Substances
• Entropy:
– increases from solid to liquid to vapor/gas;
– increases as temperature increases;
– of gas increases as its volume increases at constant
temperature;
– increases when gases are mixed.
– of elements increases down the group in the
periodic table;
– of compound increases as its structure becomes
more complex.
22. Second Law of Thermodynamics
• In any spontaneous process there is always an
increase in the entropy of the universe.
• The entropy of the universe is increasing.
• The total energy of the universe is constant,
but the entropy is increasing.
DSuniverse = DSsystem + DSsurroundings
23. Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Energy tends to flow from a high energy
concentration to a dispersed energy state;
• Energy dispersion or diffusion is a
spontaneous process.
• Dispersed or diffused energy is called entropy
• According to SLoT, a process/reaction is
spontaneous if the entropy of the universe
(system + surrounding) increases.
24. Concept Check
Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity
For the process A(l) A(s), which direction
involves an increase in energy randomness?
Positional randomness? Explain your answer.
As temperature increases/decreases (answer for
both), which takes precedence? Why?
At what temperature is there a balance between
energy randomness and positional randomness?
25. Concept Check
Describe the following as spontaneous/non-spontaneous/cannot
tell, and explain.
A reaction that is:
(a) Exothermic and becomes more positionally random
Spontaneous
(b) Exothermic and becomes less positionally random
Cannot tell
(c) Endothermic and becomes more positionally random
Cannot tell
(d) Endothermic and becomes less positionally random
Not spontaneous
Explain how temperature affects your answers.
26. DSsurr
• The sign of DSsurr depends on the direction of
the heat flow.
• The magnitude of DSsurr depends on the
temperature.
31. Effect of Temperature on DG and Spontaneity
——————————————————————————————————
DH DS T DG Comments Examples
——————————————————————————————————
• - + high - spontaneous at 2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
• or low all temperature
• + + high - spontaneous at CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
• high temperature
• - - low - spontaneous at N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
• low temperature
• + - high + nonspontaneous at 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 2H2O2(l)
• or low all temperature
________________________________________________________
32. Free Energy (G)
univ = DS - DG (at constant T and P)
T
• A process (at constant T and P) is
spontaneous in the direction in which the
free energy decreases.
Negative ΔG means positive ΔSuniv.
35. Free Energy (G)
• In Thermodynamic System:
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS (at constant T and P)
36. Gibb’s Free Energy
• For spontaneous reactions,
DSuniv = DSsys + DSsurr > 0
DSsurr = -DHsys/T
DSuniv = DSsys - DHsys/T
-TDSuniv = DGsys = DHsys - TDSsys < 0
DGsys is called Gibb’s free energy
• Another criteria for spontaneous process is DGsys < 0
37. Concept Check
A liquid is vaporized at its boiling point. Predict
the signs of:
w
–
q
+
DH
+
DS
+
DSsurr
–
DG
0
Explain your answers.
38. Exercise
The value of DHvaporization of substance X is 45.7 kJ/mol,
and its normal boiling point is 72.5°C.
Calculate DS, DSsurr, and DG for the vaporization of
one mole of this substance at 72.5°C and 1 atm.
DS = 132 J/K·mol
DSsurr = -132 J/K·mol
DG = 0 kJ/mol
40. Effect of DH and DS on Spontaneity
DH DS Result
- + spontaneous at all temps
+ + spontaneous at high temps
- - spontaneous at low temps
+ - not spontaneous at any temp
41. Concept Check
Gas A2 reacts with gas B2 to form gas AB at
constant temperature and pressure. The bond
energy of AB is much greater than that of either
reactant.
Predict the signs of:
DH DSsurr DS DSuniv
– + 0 +
Explain.
42. Third Law of Thermodynamics
• The entropy of a perfect crystal at 0 K is
zero.
• The entropy of a substance increases with
temperature.
43. Standard Entropy Values (S°)
• Represent the increase in entropy that occurs
when a substance is heated from 0 K to 298 K
at 1 atm pressure.
ΔS°reaction = ΣnpS°products – ΣnrS°reactants
44. Exercise
Calculate DS° for the following reaction:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Given the following information:
S° (J/K·mol)
Na(s) 51
H2O(l) 70
NaOH(aq) 50
H2(g) 131
DS°= –11 J/K
45. Standard Free Energy Change (ΔG°)
• The change in free energy that will occur if the
reactants in their standard states are converted to the
products in their standard states.
ΔG° = ΔH° – TΔS°
ΔG°reaction = ΣnpG°products – ΣnrG°reactants
46. Concept Check
Consider the following system at
equilibrium at 25°C.
PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g)
DG° = −92.50 kJ
What will happen to the ratio of partial pressure of
PCl5 to partial pressure of PCl3 if the temperature is
raised? Explain.
The ratio will decrease.
47. Free Energy and Pressure
G = G° + RT ln(P)
or
ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln(Q)
48. The Meaning of ΔG for a Chemical Reaction
• A system can achieve the lowest possible free energy
by going to equilibrium, not by going to completion.
49. Free Energy and Equilibrium
• The equilibrium point occurs at the lowest
value of free energy available to the reaction
system.
ΔG = 0 = ΔG° + RT ln(K)
ΔG° = –RT ln(K)
52. Free Energy and Work
• Maximum possible useful work obtainable
from a process at constant temperature and
pressure is equal to the change in free energy.
wmax = ΔG
53. Free Energy and Work
• Achieving the maximum work available from a
spontaneous process can occur only via a
hypothetical pathway. Any real pathway wastes
energy.
• All real processes are irreversible.
• First law: You can’t win, you can only break even.
• Second law: You can’t break even.
54. Third Law of Thermodynamics
• The entropy of a perfect crystalline substance
is zero at absolute zero temperature (0.0 K)
• Is absolute zero temperature achievable?
55. Standard Entropy, So
• The entropy of a substance in its most stable
state at 1 atm and 25oC.
• The entropy of an ionic species in 1 M solution
at 25oC.
56. Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The second law of thermodynamics states that
all spontaneous processes are accompanied by
increase in the entropy of the universe.
– Universe = System + Surrounding;
– System: the process/reaction whose
thermodynamic change is being studied;
– Surrounding: the part of the universe that interacts
with the system.
57. Conditions for Spontaneous Process
• Entropy change for a process:
DSuniv = DSsys + DSsurr > 0, process is spontaneous
DSuniv = DSsys + DSsurr = 0, process is at equilibrium
• If DSsys < 0, DSsurr > 0, and |DSsurr| > |DSsys|
• If DSsurr < 0, DSsys > 0, and |DSsys| > |DSsurr|
58. Thermodynamic Free Energy
• It is the maximum amount of chemical energy
derived from a spontaneous reaction that can
be utilized to do work or to drive a
nonspontaneous process.
• It is the minimum amount of energy that must
be supplied to make a nonspontaneous reaction
occur.
59. Entropy Change in Chemical Reactions
• At constant temperature and pressure,
DSo
rxn = SnpSo
products – SnrSo
reactants
• In general, DSo
rxn > 0 if Snp > Snr
• Example-1:
• C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g), (Snp > Snr)
DSo
rxn = {(3 x SoCO2) + (4 x SoH2O)} – {(SoC3H8) + (5 x SoO2)}
• = {(3 x 214) + (4 x 189)}J/K – {270 + (5 x 205)}J/K
• = (642 + 756) J/K – (270 + 1025) J/K
= 103 J/K
60. Entropy Change in Chemical Reactions
DSo
rxn < 0 if Snp < Snr
• Example-2:
• CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g), (Snp < Snr)
DSo
rxn = (SoCH3OH) – {(SoCO) + (2 x SoH2)}
• = 240 J/K – {198 J/K + (2 x 131 J/K)
• = 240 J/K – 460 J/K = -220 J/K
61. Effect of Temperature on DGo
DGo = DHo - TDSo
• Example-1:
• For the reaction: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g),
DHo = -92 kJ and DSo = -199 J/K = -0.199 kJ/K
• At 25oC, TDSo = 298 K x (-0.199 J/K) = -59.3 kJ
• DGo = DHo - TDSo = -92 kJ – (-59.3 kJ) = -33 kJ;
reaction is spontaneous at 25oC
• At 250oC, TDSo = 523 K x (-0.199 J/K) = -104 kJ;
• DGo = DHo - TDSo = -92 kJ – (-104 kJ) = 12 kJ;
reaction is nonspontaneous at 250oC
62. Effect of Temperature on DGo
DGo = DHo – TDSo
• Example-2:
• For the reaction: CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g),
DHo = 206 kJ and DSo = 216 J/K = 0.216 kJ/K
• At 25oC, TDSo = 298 K x (0.216 J/K) = 64.4 kJ
• DGo = DHo - TDSo = 206 kJ – 64.4 kJ = 142 kJ;
reaction is nonspontaneous at 25oC.
• At 1200 K, TDSo = 1200 K x (0.216 J/K) = 259 kJ;
• DGo = DHo - TDSo = 206 kJ – 259 kJ) = -53 kJ;
reaction is spontaneous at 1200 K
63. DG under Nonstandard Conditions
• Free energy change also depends on concentrations
and partial pressures;
• Under nonstandard conditions (Pi not 1 atm),
DG = DGo + RTlnQp,
Consider the reaction: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g),
Qp =
3
2
(P )
NH3
(P )(P )
N2 H2
Under standard condition, PN2 = PH2 = PNH3 = 1 atm, Qp = 1;
lnQp = 0, and DG = DGo
64. DG of reaction under nonstandard condition
Consider the following reaction at 250oC:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g),
where, PN2 = 5.0 atm, PH2 = 15 atm, and PNH3 = 5.0 atm
Qp = 52/(5 x 153) = 1.5 x 10-3
lnQp = ln(1.5 x 10-3 ) = -6.5
Under this condition, DG = DGo + RTlnQp;
(For this reaction at 250oC, calculated DGo = 12 kJ)
DG = 12 kJ + (0.008314 kJ/T x 523 K x (-6.5))
= 12 kJ – 28 kJ = -16 kJ spontaneous reaction
65. Transition Temperature
• This is a temperature at which a reaction changes from being
spontaneous to being nonspontaneous, and vice versa, when
Qp or Qc equals 1 (standard condition)
• At transition temperature, Tr,
DGo = DHo – TrDSo = 0; Tr = DHo/DSo
For reaction: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g),
Tr = -92 kJ/(-0.199 kJ/K) = 460 K = 190oC
Under standard pressure (1 atm), this reaction is
spontaneous below 190oC, but becomes nonspontaneous
above this temperqature.
66. Transition Temperature
• For reaction: CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g),
DHo = 206 kJ and DSo = 216 J/K = 0.216 kJ/K
DGo = DHo + TrDSo = 0,
Tr = 206 kJ/(0.216 kJ/K) = 954 K = 681oC
Under standard pressure (1 atm), this reaction is not
spontaneous below 681oC, but becomes spontaneous above
this temperature.
Reactions with both DHo and DSo < 0 favor low temperature;
Those with both DHo and DSo > 0 favor high temperature.
67. Free Energy and Equilibrium Constant
• For spontaneous reactions, DG decreases (becomes
less negative) as the reaction proceeds towards
equilibrium;
• At equilibrium, DG = 0;
• DG = DGo + RTlnK = 0
• DGo = -RTlnK
• lnK = -DGo/RT (DGo calculated at temperature T)
• Equilibrium constant, K = e-(DGo/RT)
DGo < 0, K > 1; reaction favors products formation
DGo > 0, K < 1; reaction favors reactants formation
DGo = 0, K = 1; reaction favors neither reactants nor products
68. Calculating K from DGo
• Consider the reaction: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g),
• At 25oC, DGo = -33 kJ
• lnK = -(-33 x 103 J/(298 K x 8.314 J/K.mol)) = 13
• K = e13 = 4.4 x 105 (reaction goes to completion)
• At 250oC, DGo = 12 kJ;
• lnK = -(12 x 103 J/(523 K x 8.314 J/K.mol)) = -2.8
• K = e-2.8 = 0.061 (very little product is formed)
69. Coupling Reactions
• A nonspontaneous reaction can be coupled to a
spontaneous one to make it happen.
Example:
• Fe2O3(s) 2Fe(s) + 3/2 O2(g); DGo = 740 kJ (eq-1)
• CO(g) + ½ O2(g) CO2(g); DGo = -283 kJ
• 3CO(g) + 3/2 O2(g) 3CO2(g); DGo = -849 kJ (eq-2)
Combining eq-1 and eq-2,
• Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g); DGo = -109 kJ
70. Coupling Reactions in Biological System
• The formation of ATP from ADP and H2PO4
- is
nonspontaneous, but it can be coupled to the hydrolysis of
creatine-phosphate that has a negative DGo.
• ADP + H2PO4
- ATP + H2O; DGo = +30 kJ
• Creatine-phosphate creatine + phosphate; DGo = -43 kJ
Combining the two equations yields a spontaneous overall
reaction:
• Creatine-phosphate + ADP Creatine + ATP; DGo = -13 kJ
The gas should spread evenly throughout the two bulbs.
All are equal to zero. Since it is a constant temperature process, H = 0 and E = 0. The gas is working against zero pressure (evacuated bulb) so w = 0. E = q + w, so q = 0.
Some students are probably aware of the concept of entropy. This is a good introduction to the concept.
a) + (a liquid is turning into a gas)
b) - (more order in a solid than a liquid)
c) - (the volume of the container is decreasing)
d) + (the volume of the container is increasing)
e) + (there is less order as the salt dissociates and spreads throughout the water)
Since energy is required to melt a solid, the reaction as written is exothermic. Thus, energy randomness favors the right (product; solid). Since a liquid has less order than a solid, positional randomness favors the left (reactant; liquid).
As temperature increases, positional randomness is favored (at higher temperatures the fact that energy is released becomes less important). As temperature decreases, energy randomness is favored.
There is a balance at the melting point.
a) Spontaneous (both driving forces are favorable). An example is the combustion of a hydrocarbon.
b) Cannot tell (exothermic is favorable, positional randomness is not). An example is the freezing of water, which becomes spontaneous as the temperature of water is decreased.
c) Cannot tell (positional randomness is favorable, endothermic is not). An example is the vaporization of water, which becomes spontaneous as the temperature of water is increased..
d) Not spontaneous (both driving forces are unfavorable).
Questions &quot;a&quot; and &quot;d&quot; are not affected by temperature. Choices &quot;b&quot; and &quot;c&quot; are explained above.
As a liquid goes to vapor, it does work on the surroundings (expansion occurs). Heat is required for this process. Thus, w = negative; q = H = positive. S = positive (a gas is more disordered than a liquid), and Ssurr = negative (heat comes from the surroundings to the system); G = 0 because the system is at its boiling point and therefore at equilibrium.
Since the average bond energy of the products is greater than the average bond energies of the reactants, the reaction is exothermic as written.
Thus, the sign of H is negative; Ssurr is positive; S is close to zero (cannot tell for sure); and Suniv is positive.
S is negative (unfavorable) yet the reaction is spontaneous (G is negative). Thus, H must be negative (exothermic, favorable). Thus, as the temperature is increased, the reaction proceeds to the left, decreasing the ratio of partial pressure of PCl5 to the partial pressure of PCl3.