This chapter discusses organic compounds and carbon chemistry. It covers the properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are examined. Important classes of organic reactions such as addition, elimination, and substitution are described. The chapter also explores functional groups and how they determine a molecule's reactivity and properties. Alcohols are highlighted as one functional group and their naming conventions and intermolecular hydrogen bonding are discussed.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons whose general formula is CnH2n+2. Their names are derived from their molecular formula. Structural formulas show how atoms are bonded. Physical properties of alkanes include being soluble in organic solvents but not water, and existing as gases at low carbon numbers and liquids or solids at higher numbers. Melting and boiling points increase with more carbon atoms as intermolecular forces strengthen. Alkanes undergo combustion and halogenation reactions. Complete combustion produces CO2 and H2O while incomplete produces CO and H2O. Halogenation is a substitution reaction that occurs in sunlight, breaking C-H bonds and forming C-X bonds to produce chlorometh
1. The document discusses various concepts in chemistry including equivalent mass, normality, molarity, molality, strength of solutions, and percentage concentration.
2. It provides examples of calculating the equivalent mass of acids, bases, and salts. Normality is defined as the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
3. Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Strength is the mass of solute per liter of solution.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Common properties of alkenes include being unsaturated, less dense than water, and having lower melting and boiling points than alkanes. Alkenes undergo addition reactions where the double bond is broken and new single bonds are formed. They react with hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides, water, and acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution through addition reactions. Polymerization of alkenes forms polymers like polyethene. Alkenes burn with more soot than alkanes due to their higher carbon content.
The document summarizes key information about carboxylic acids from their general formula of RCOOH to their characteristic properties and reactions. It discusses (1) the nomenclature and structures of carboxylic acids, (2) their higher boiling points and water solubility compared to similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding, (3) their acidity stemming from ionization of the carboxyl group, and (4) several important reactions including preparation by oxidation, esterification, and formation of derivatives like acid chlorides, anhydrides, salts, and amides.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
Chapter 03 organic compounds alkanes and cycloalkanesWong Hsiung
This document provides an overview of organic compounds called alkanes and cycloalkanes. It defines key terms like functional groups and discusses different types of organic compounds grouped by their functional groups, including alkenes, alkynes, and arenes. The document also covers properties and naming conventions for alkanes and cycloalkanes specifically. It describes structural isomers and cis-trans isomerism that can occur in cycloalkane compounds.
This document discusses alkanes, which are a homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons. The key points are:
1. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 and are characterized by single carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds, making them saturated.
2. Physical properties of alkanes, such as melting/boiling points, viscosity, and density, increase with increasing number of carbon atoms due to stronger intermolecular forces.
3. Alkanes are generally unreactive due to strong bonds, but can undergo combustion reactions releasing energy, and substitution reactions replacing hydrogen with other atoms.
The document provides information about electrochemistry. It discusses oxidation-reduction reactions and how they involve the transfer of electrons between species. It explains how to assign oxidation numbers to keep track of electrons gained and lost. Balancing oxidation-reduction reactions using the half-reaction method is also covered. Finally, the document discusses voltaic cells, electrolytic cells, and applications of electrochemistry such as electroplating.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons whose general formula is CnH2n+2. Their names are derived from their molecular formula. Structural formulas show how atoms are bonded. Physical properties of alkanes include being soluble in organic solvents but not water, and existing as gases at low carbon numbers and liquids or solids at higher numbers. Melting and boiling points increase with more carbon atoms as intermolecular forces strengthen. Alkanes undergo combustion and halogenation reactions. Complete combustion produces CO2 and H2O while incomplete produces CO and H2O. Halogenation is a substitution reaction that occurs in sunlight, breaking C-H bonds and forming C-X bonds to produce chlorometh
1. The document discusses various concepts in chemistry including equivalent mass, normality, molarity, molality, strength of solutions, and percentage concentration.
2. It provides examples of calculating the equivalent mass of acids, bases, and salts. Normality is defined as the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
3. Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Strength is the mass of solute per liter of solution.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Common properties of alkenes include being unsaturated, less dense than water, and having lower melting and boiling points than alkanes. Alkenes undergo addition reactions where the double bond is broken and new single bonds are formed. They react with hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides, water, and acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution through addition reactions. Polymerization of alkenes forms polymers like polyethene. Alkenes burn with more soot than alkanes due to their higher carbon content.
The document summarizes key information about carboxylic acids from their general formula of RCOOH to their characteristic properties and reactions. It discusses (1) the nomenclature and structures of carboxylic acids, (2) their higher boiling points and water solubility compared to similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding, (3) their acidity stemming from ionization of the carboxyl group, and (4) several important reactions including preparation by oxidation, esterification, and formation of derivatives like acid chlorides, anhydrides, salts, and amides.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
Chapter 03 organic compounds alkanes and cycloalkanesWong Hsiung
This document provides an overview of organic compounds called alkanes and cycloalkanes. It defines key terms like functional groups and discusses different types of organic compounds grouped by their functional groups, including alkenes, alkynes, and arenes. The document also covers properties and naming conventions for alkanes and cycloalkanes specifically. It describes structural isomers and cis-trans isomerism that can occur in cycloalkane compounds.
This document discusses alkanes, which are a homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons. The key points are:
1. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 and are characterized by single carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds, making them saturated.
2. Physical properties of alkanes, such as melting/boiling points, viscosity, and density, increase with increasing number of carbon atoms due to stronger intermolecular forces.
3. Alkanes are generally unreactive due to strong bonds, but can undergo combustion reactions releasing energy, and substitution reactions replacing hydrogen with other atoms.
The document provides information about electrochemistry. It discusses oxidation-reduction reactions and how they involve the transfer of electrons between species. It explains how to assign oxidation numbers to keep track of electrons gained and lost. Balancing oxidation-reduction reactions using the half-reaction method is also covered. Finally, the document discusses voltaic cells, electrolytic cells, and applications of electrochemistry such as electroplating.
2016 topic 5.1 measuring energy changesDavid Young
This document provides an overview of exothermic and endothermic reactions, calorimetry, and how to calculate enthalpy changes. The key points are:
- Exothermic reactions release heat while endothermic reactions absorb heat.
- Enthalpy change (ΔH) is the quantity of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction.
- Calorimetry experiments allow calculation of ΔH by measuring the temperature change of a reaction mixture.
- Sample problems demonstrate how to use calorimetry data like mass changes and temperature differences to calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction.
This document discusses aromatic compounds and benzene chemistry. It begins by introducing aromatic hydrocarbons and noting they have different properties than aliphatic hydrocarbons. Benzene, the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, is described as having posed problems for early chemists to determine its structure. Kekulé proposed benzene has alternating single and double bonds, but this did not explain its chemical behavior. The resonance structure of benzene is able to account for its reactivity. The document continues discussing nomenclature of aromatic compounds with different numbers of substituents on the benzene ring. Characteristic reactions of benzene like halogenation and nitration are also covered. Phenols are introduced as aromatic compounds containing an -OH group
The document discusses several topics related to chemistry:
1) The voltage needed to create an electron is about one million volts, the same voltage as lightning. This high voltage accelerates electrons from the sky to the ground.
2) Alcohols are derivatives of hydrocarbons where an –OH group replaces a hydrogen. They can act as both acids and bases.
3) Phenols have a hydroxyl group bonded directly to a benzene ring. They are named based on the carbon the hydroxyl group is bonded to, such as phenol itself or cresols which are methyl phenols.
B sc_I_General chemistry U-III(A) Alkane,alkene and alkynes Rai University
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
- Organic compounds contain carbon and are found in living things. Key elements are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur.
- Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds and can be aliphatic or aromatic. Aliphatic hydrocarbons include alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes which differ by their carbon bonding.
- IUPAC nomenclature systematically names organic compounds based on carbon chain length and functional groups. Functional groups determine a molecule's properties.
Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that are covalently bonded together and carry an overall electric charge. They behave as a single unit of charge when balancing equations for ionic compounds. Common examples include the nitrate ion (NO3-), which has one more electron than protons overall. Polyatomic ions are different from monatomic ions which involve a single atom with an electric charge due to having more or fewer electrons than protons.
This document provides an overview of alkanes, including their structure, naming conventions, properties, and sources. It defines hydrocarbons and alkanes. Alkanes contain only single carbon-carbon bonds. Constitutional isomers are discussed. Naming conventions for alkanes include prefixes for carbon numbers and suffixes like -ane for straight chains or naming substituents on branches. Cycloalkanes are named similarly with the prefix cyclo-. Physical properties like boiling points increasing with molecular weight are covered. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water. Natural sources of hydrocarbons include natural gas and petroleum.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
This is a summary of the topic "Alkanes and Alkenes" in the GCE O levels subject: Chemistry. Students taking either the combined science (chemistry/physics) or pure chemistry will find this useful. These slides are prepared according to the learning outcomes required by the examinations board.
Transition metal polymers by Dr. Salma Amirsalmaamir2
This lecture discusses transition metal polymers. Transition metal polymers contain transition metal complexes in their side chains or main chains. They are synthesized via various methods including radical polymerization, cationic polymerization, condensation polymerization, and ring opening polymerization. Transition metal polymers exhibit properties such as magnetism, photosensitivity, thermal stability, and conductivity due to the presence of transition metals. They have applications as sensors, catalysts, and conductive materials.
07 - Structure and Synthesis of Alkenes - Wade 7thNattawut Huayyai
This chapter discusses alkenes, which are hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon double bonds. It covers the structure and bonding of ethylene as well as the IUPAC nomenclature used for naming alkenes. The chapter also examines methods for synthesizing alkenes, including dehydrohalogenation reactions and dehydration of alcohols. It discusses substituent effects on the stability of double bonds and various physical properties of alkenes.
- Acid anhydrides contain two molecules of a carboxylic acid joined together with the loss of a water molecule. Their general structure is RCO-O-COR.
- They can be prepared by reacting acid chlorides with carboxylic acids or carboxylate salts, or by heating carboxylic acids with zinc oxide or certain dicarboxylic acids.
- Acid anhydrides react through hydrolysis, alcoholysis, ammonolysis, and Friedel-Crafts acylation. Hydrolysis regenerates the original carboxylic acids, while alcoholysis forms esters and acids. Ammonolysis produces amides, and Friedel-Crafts acylation yields ket
The document defines stoichiometry as representing the exact mass or moles of reactants and products in a chemical reaction without waste. Stoichiometry is demonstrated through a balanced chemical equation, where the coefficients indicate the mole ratios of reactants and products. There are four types of stoichiometry problems: mole-mole, mole-mass, mass-mole, and mass-mass, which relate quantities of reactants and products by either moles or mass.
This document discusses aldehydes and ketones. It defines aldehydes as carbonyl compounds containing at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl carbon, while ketones contain two carbon groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon. The document covers nomenclature rules for naming aldehydes and ketones based on IUPAC conventions, examples of common aldehydes and ketones, and different types of isomerism exhibited by these compound classes. Physical and chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones are also outlined.
This document discusses alcohols, phenols, and ethers. It defines these compounds and describes their structures. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl group bonded to carbon, while phenols have a hydroxyl group bonded to an aromatic carbon. Ethers have an alkoxy or aryloxy group in place of a hydrogen. The document classifies these compounds based on the number and position of functional groups. It also discusses their naming conventions, physical properties, bonding, and methods of synthesis.
This document provides an overview of alkynes, including their structure, nomenclature, properties, reactions, and synthesis. Key points include:
- Alkynes contain a triple bond consisting of two pi bonds and one sigma bond, giving them a linear structure.
- They undergo addition reactions due to their relatively weak pi bonds. Common additions include hydrohalogenation, hydration, halogenation, and hydroboration-oxidation.
- Acetylide ions, formed by deprotonation of terminal alkynes, are strong nucleophiles that react through substitution and addition reactions.
This document provides an overview of unsaturated hydrocarbons, specifically focusing on alkenes. It discusses the characteristics, nomenclature, structural formulas, isomerism, naturally occurring forms, physical properties and chemical reactions of alkenes. Key topics covered include the IUPAC naming rules for alkenes and cycloalkenes, the different types of isomerism that can occur in alkenes, common naturally occurring alkenes like pheromones and terpenes, and common chemical reactions like addition reactions, hydrogenation, and halogenation.
This document provides an outline for topics to be discussed in an organic chemistry tutorial, including: introduction to organic chemistry; nomenclature; carbon properties including hybridization and bonds; isomers and stereochemistry; chirality of molecules including conformational and configurational isomers; and relative and absolute configuration. The tutorial will cover key organic chemistry concepts such as naming organic compounds, identifying isomers, hybridization principles, and the 3D arrangement of atoms in chiral molecules.
The document discusses alkanes and cycloalkanes. It describes how alkanes are found naturally in petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum is separated through distillation into fractions like gasoline and kerosene. Alkanes can be refined and processed through technologies like cracking, isomerization, and reforming to produce smaller alkanes, branched alkanes, and aromatics for use in fuels and petrochemicals. The physical properties of alkanes are also covered, including combustion, heats of combustion, and octane ratings. Naming conventions for alkanes like alkyl groups and IUPAC nomenclature are outlined.
The reaction of a tertiary alkyl halide will proceed by an SN1 or E1 mechanism to give a mixture of products. In the absence of a strong nucleophile or base, the rate-determining step is formation of the tertiary carbocation intermediate. Rearrangements and elimination may then occur to form substituted alkene products.
The document discusses the four main types of solids: ionic crystals, metallic crystals, molecular crystals, and covalent network crystals. Ionic crystals consist of positively and negatively charged ions arranged in a lattice, held together by ionic bonds. They are brittle with high melting points. Metallic crystals have mobile valence electrons that allow conductivity. Molecular crystals have intermolecular forces and low melting points. Covalent network crystals form covalent bonds in 1D, 2D, or 3D arrays, resulting in properties ranging from soft to hard depending on the structure.
This chapter discusses organic compounds and their structures and properties. It begins by explaining the bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are presented. Important reactions like addition, elimination, and substitution are defined. Functional groups are introduced as determinants of a compound's properties and reactivity. Specific functional groups like alcohols are discussed. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is presented as a tool for analyzing organic molecule structures.
This chapter discusses organic compounds and their structures and properties. It begins by explaining the bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are presented. Important reactions like addition, elimination, and substitution are defined. Functional groups are introduced as determinants of a compound's properties and reactivity. Specific functional groups like alcohols are described. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is discussed as an analytical tool for determining organic structures.
2016 topic 5.1 measuring energy changesDavid Young
This document provides an overview of exothermic and endothermic reactions, calorimetry, and how to calculate enthalpy changes. The key points are:
- Exothermic reactions release heat while endothermic reactions absorb heat.
- Enthalpy change (ΔH) is the quantity of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction.
- Calorimetry experiments allow calculation of ΔH by measuring the temperature change of a reaction mixture.
- Sample problems demonstrate how to use calorimetry data like mass changes and temperature differences to calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction.
This document discusses aromatic compounds and benzene chemistry. It begins by introducing aromatic hydrocarbons and noting they have different properties than aliphatic hydrocarbons. Benzene, the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, is described as having posed problems for early chemists to determine its structure. Kekulé proposed benzene has alternating single and double bonds, but this did not explain its chemical behavior. The resonance structure of benzene is able to account for its reactivity. The document continues discussing nomenclature of aromatic compounds with different numbers of substituents on the benzene ring. Characteristic reactions of benzene like halogenation and nitration are also covered. Phenols are introduced as aromatic compounds containing an -OH group
The document discusses several topics related to chemistry:
1) The voltage needed to create an electron is about one million volts, the same voltage as lightning. This high voltage accelerates electrons from the sky to the ground.
2) Alcohols are derivatives of hydrocarbons where an –OH group replaces a hydrogen. They can act as both acids and bases.
3) Phenols have a hydroxyl group bonded directly to a benzene ring. They are named based on the carbon the hydroxyl group is bonded to, such as phenol itself or cresols which are methyl phenols.
B sc_I_General chemistry U-III(A) Alkane,alkene and alkynes Rai University
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
- Organic compounds contain carbon and are found in living things. Key elements are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur.
- Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds and can be aliphatic or aromatic. Aliphatic hydrocarbons include alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes which differ by their carbon bonding.
- IUPAC nomenclature systematically names organic compounds based on carbon chain length and functional groups. Functional groups determine a molecule's properties.
Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that are covalently bonded together and carry an overall electric charge. They behave as a single unit of charge when balancing equations for ionic compounds. Common examples include the nitrate ion (NO3-), which has one more electron than protons overall. Polyatomic ions are different from monatomic ions which involve a single atom with an electric charge due to having more or fewer electrons than protons.
This document provides an overview of alkanes, including their structure, naming conventions, properties, and sources. It defines hydrocarbons and alkanes. Alkanes contain only single carbon-carbon bonds. Constitutional isomers are discussed. Naming conventions for alkanes include prefixes for carbon numbers and suffixes like -ane for straight chains or naming substituents on branches. Cycloalkanes are named similarly with the prefix cyclo-. Physical properties like boiling points increasing with molecular weight are covered. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water. Natural sources of hydrocarbons include natural gas and petroleum.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
This is a summary of the topic "Alkanes and Alkenes" in the GCE O levels subject: Chemistry. Students taking either the combined science (chemistry/physics) or pure chemistry will find this useful. These slides are prepared according to the learning outcomes required by the examinations board.
Transition metal polymers by Dr. Salma Amirsalmaamir2
This lecture discusses transition metal polymers. Transition metal polymers contain transition metal complexes in their side chains or main chains. They are synthesized via various methods including radical polymerization, cationic polymerization, condensation polymerization, and ring opening polymerization. Transition metal polymers exhibit properties such as magnetism, photosensitivity, thermal stability, and conductivity due to the presence of transition metals. They have applications as sensors, catalysts, and conductive materials.
07 - Structure and Synthesis of Alkenes - Wade 7thNattawut Huayyai
This chapter discusses alkenes, which are hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon double bonds. It covers the structure and bonding of ethylene as well as the IUPAC nomenclature used for naming alkenes. The chapter also examines methods for synthesizing alkenes, including dehydrohalogenation reactions and dehydration of alcohols. It discusses substituent effects on the stability of double bonds and various physical properties of alkenes.
- Acid anhydrides contain two molecules of a carboxylic acid joined together with the loss of a water molecule. Their general structure is RCO-O-COR.
- They can be prepared by reacting acid chlorides with carboxylic acids or carboxylate salts, or by heating carboxylic acids with zinc oxide or certain dicarboxylic acids.
- Acid anhydrides react through hydrolysis, alcoholysis, ammonolysis, and Friedel-Crafts acylation. Hydrolysis regenerates the original carboxylic acids, while alcoholysis forms esters and acids. Ammonolysis produces amides, and Friedel-Crafts acylation yields ket
The document defines stoichiometry as representing the exact mass or moles of reactants and products in a chemical reaction without waste. Stoichiometry is demonstrated through a balanced chemical equation, where the coefficients indicate the mole ratios of reactants and products. There are four types of stoichiometry problems: mole-mole, mole-mass, mass-mole, and mass-mass, which relate quantities of reactants and products by either moles or mass.
This document discusses aldehydes and ketones. It defines aldehydes as carbonyl compounds containing at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl carbon, while ketones contain two carbon groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon. The document covers nomenclature rules for naming aldehydes and ketones based on IUPAC conventions, examples of common aldehydes and ketones, and different types of isomerism exhibited by these compound classes. Physical and chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones are also outlined.
This document discusses alcohols, phenols, and ethers. It defines these compounds and describes their structures. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl group bonded to carbon, while phenols have a hydroxyl group bonded to an aromatic carbon. Ethers have an alkoxy or aryloxy group in place of a hydrogen. The document classifies these compounds based on the number and position of functional groups. It also discusses their naming conventions, physical properties, bonding, and methods of synthesis.
This document provides an overview of alkynes, including their structure, nomenclature, properties, reactions, and synthesis. Key points include:
- Alkynes contain a triple bond consisting of two pi bonds and one sigma bond, giving them a linear structure.
- They undergo addition reactions due to their relatively weak pi bonds. Common additions include hydrohalogenation, hydration, halogenation, and hydroboration-oxidation.
- Acetylide ions, formed by deprotonation of terminal alkynes, are strong nucleophiles that react through substitution and addition reactions.
This document provides an overview of unsaturated hydrocarbons, specifically focusing on alkenes. It discusses the characteristics, nomenclature, structural formulas, isomerism, naturally occurring forms, physical properties and chemical reactions of alkenes. Key topics covered include the IUPAC naming rules for alkenes and cycloalkenes, the different types of isomerism that can occur in alkenes, common naturally occurring alkenes like pheromones and terpenes, and common chemical reactions like addition reactions, hydrogenation, and halogenation.
This document provides an outline for topics to be discussed in an organic chemistry tutorial, including: introduction to organic chemistry; nomenclature; carbon properties including hybridization and bonds; isomers and stereochemistry; chirality of molecules including conformational and configurational isomers; and relative and absolute configuration. The tutorial will cover key organic chemistry concepts such as naming organic compounds, identifying isomers, hybridization principles, and the 3D arrangement of atoms in chiral molecules.
The document discusses alkanes and cycloalkanes. It describes how alkanes are found naturally in petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum is separated through distillation into fractions like gasoline and kerosene. Alkanes can be refined and processed through technologies like cracking, isomerization, and reforming to produce smaller alkanes, branched alkanes, and aromatics for use in fuels and petrochemicals. The physical properties of alkanes are also covered, including combustion, heats of combustion, and octane ratings. Naming conventions for alkanes like alkyl groups and IUPAC nomenclature are outlined.
The reaction of a tertiary alkyl halide will proceed by an SN1 or E1 mechanism to give a mixture of products. In the absence of a strong nucleophile or base, the rate-determining step is formation of the tertiary carbocation intermediate. Rearrangements and elimination may then occur to form substituted alkene products.
The document discusses the four main types of solids: ionic crystals, metallic crystals, molecular crystals, and covalent network crystals. Ionic crystals consist of positively and negatively charged ions arranged in a lattice, held together by ionic bonds. They are brittle with high melting points. Metallic crystals have mobile valence electrons that allow conductivity. Molecular crystals have intermolecular forces and low melting points. Covalent network crystals form covalent bonds in 1D, 2D, or 3D arrays, resulting in properties ranging from soft to hard depending on the structure.
This chapter discusses organic compounds and their structures and properties. It begins by explaining the bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are presented. Important reactions like addition, elimination, and substitution are defined. Functional groups are introduced as determinants of a compound's properties and reactivity. Specific functional groups like alcohols are discussed. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is presented as a tool for analyzing organic molecule structures.
This chapter discusses organic compounds and their structures and properties. It begins by explaining the bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are presented. Important reactions like addition, elimination, and substitution are defined. Functional groups are introduced as determinants of a compound's properties and reactivity. Specific functional groups like alcohols are described. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is discussed as an analytical tool for determining organic structures.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry I and focuses on hydrocarbons. It defines key terms like saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2 and contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and have the general formula CnH2n. Alkynes contain carbon-carbon triple bonds. The document discusses isomerism, naming conventions including IUPAC nomenclature, and aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene and its derivatives. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is introduced as an analytical tool for identifying organic compounds.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts related to hydrocarbons. It begins by explaining the unique bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, stable molecules through catenation. The main classes of hydrocarbons - alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and cyclic compounds - are introduced along with their structures, formulas, and IUPAC nomenclature rules. Isomerism, including constitutional and geometric isomers, is also discussed. Analytical techniques like NMR spectroscopy are presented as tools to analyze organic molecule structures.
New chm-152-unit-11-power-points-su13-140227172047-phpapp02Cleophas Rwemera
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
- Hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and cyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons.
- The bonding properties of carbon that allow for catenation and the diversity of organic molecules.
- Nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds using IUPAC nomenclature including examples of naming alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
- Isomers such as constitutional and geometric isomers.
- Key aspects of specific classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes having the general formula CnH2n+2 and benzene being an aromatic hydrocarbon.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including definitions of organic compounds, differences between organic and inorganic compounds, and key concepts. It discusses the early history when vitalism prevented the synthesis of organic compounds. Friedrich Wöhler was the first to synthesize an organic compound in a laboratory. The document also outlines types of organic compounds like hydrocarbons, and how they are named according to IUPAC rules. Carbon properties and different hybridizations that allow multiple bonds are covered.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including definitions of key terms and concepts. It discusses:
- The early history of organic chemistry and the discovery that organic compounds could be synthesized in the lab.
- The main differences between organic and inorganic compounds in terms of their properties and bonding.
- The central role of carbon atoms in organic compounds and their ability to form chains and complex structures through catenation.
- The different classes of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and their IUPAC naming conventions.
- Important organic functional groups derived from hydrocarbons like alkyl halides, alcohols, ethers, al
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1. Carbon is unique due to its ability to form chains (catenation) and bonds (tetravalency), making it central to organic compounds. Hybridization allows carbon to form different types of bonds to satisfy its valence.
2. Organic compounds can be classified based on their structure as acyclic/aliphatic, cyclic/aromatic, or heterocyclic aromatic. Nomenclature systems like IUPAC provide standardized naming conventions.
3. Key concepts include structural representations showing bonding and 3D orientation, and classification of organic compounds based on functional groups and ring structures. Hybridization explains how carbon satisfies its valence to form
Carbon compounds can be classified based on their structure and bonding. The document discusses carbon bonding and different types of carbon compounds including hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are classified as saturated or unsaturated, and as alkanes, alkenes or alkynes depending on the presence of single, double or triple carbon-carbon bonds. Functional groups and homologous series are also introduced. Nomenclature of carbon compounds using IUPAC and common systems is explained.
This document provides an overview of carbon and organic chemistry topics. It discusses the structure and properties of carbon, including its ability to form covalent bonds and exist in different allotropes like diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene. Carbon's versatility is explained by its properties of catenation and tetravalency. The document outlines saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, and describes how carbon can form chains, branches and rings. Lewis structures are introduced as a way to represent bonding. Homologous series are defined as compounds with the same functional group substituting for hydrogen in a carbon chain.
This document discusses alkanes and cycloalkanes. It begins by defining hydrocarbons and alkanes as compounds composed only of carbon and hydrogen that contain only carbon-carbon single bonds. It then discusses the structures, naming conventions, properties, sources and synthesis of alkanes. It describes the chair conformations of cyclohexane and envelope conformations of cyclopentane as the most stable. The document also covers constitutional isomers, cis-trans isomers, and how branching affects the physical properties of alkanes like boiling points.
Carbon forms covalent bonds by sharing electrons and has the unique ability to form chains and rings of carbon atoms through catenation. This property allows carbon to form a vast number of compounds through single, double, and triple bonds and structural isomers. Carbon compounds are classified as saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons and can undergo combustion reactions.
This document summarizes key concepts in organometallic chemistry. It discusses the definition of organometallic compounds as those containing metal-carbon bonds. It outlines different types of ligands that can bind to metals, including carbonyl, carbene, and cyclic π systems. It also describes principles for understanding bonding interactions between ligands and metals, such as the 18-electron rule and molecular orbital theory. Spectroscopic techniques for analyzing organometallic compounds are also summarized.
This chapter discusses complexation and protein binding in pharmaceuticals. It defines the three classes of complexes as metal ion complexes, organic molecular complexes, and inclusion compounds. It describes the types of interactions that form complexes, such as coordination bonds and van der Waals forces. Metal complexes are discussed in depth, including examples of inorganic complexes like hexamminecobalt(III) chloride and the hybridization of metal orbitals. Chelates are described as complexes where ligands are attached to the same metal ion, conferring properties like chirality. Protein binding can influence drug action and is determined using methods like equilibrium dialysis.
This document discusses carbon bonding and the formation of carbon compounds. It explains that carbon can form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms through a process called catenation, allowing it to form straight chains, branches, and rings. This bonding ability arises because carbon is tetravalent and can hybridize its orbitals, taking on different hybridization states like sp, sp2, and sp3. Some carbon compounds exhibit resonance, where electrons are delocalized over multiple carbon atoms. This results in more stable structures that are hybrids of different resonant forms. Overall, carbon's unique bonding properties allow it to form a diverse array of stable organic compounds.
This document discusses organic compounds and their functional groups. It begins by introducing families of organic compounds and noting that they can be grouped by their common structural features. It then focuses on describing various functional groups, including their structures, properties, and common reactions. Specific functional groups discussed include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, alcohols, ethers, amines, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. The document also covers nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds.
This document discusses organic compounds and their functional groups. It begins by introducing families of organic compounds and noting that they can be grouped by their common structural features. It then focuses on describing various functional groups, including their structures, properties, and common reactions. Specific functional groups discussed include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, alcohols, ethers, amines, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. The document also covers naming conventions and properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes.
The document provides an overview of an introductory organic chemistry course, including key concepts such as:
- Organic molecules are carbon-based and have distinct properties due to carbon-carbon bonding
- Structural formulas are used to represent molecular connectivity but not 3D structure or stereochemistry
- Ethane's tetrahedral geometry is explained by sp3 hybridization of carbon atoms, allowing formation of σ bonds
- Conformations like staggered and eclipsed account for relative energies of ethane structures
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1) Classification of organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, functional group compounds, and aromatic compounds.
2) Isomerism including structural and stereoisomerism.
3) Bonding theories such as hybridization and resonance that explain organic compound structures and properties.
4) Reactions of organic compounds including substitution, addition, elimination, and oxidation reactions. Mechanisms such as electrophilic addition, free radical halogenation and the effects of stability and electronic effects are discussed.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry. It discusses the structures, representations, properties and classifications of organic compounds. It also covers topics such as isomerism, reactions, reaction mechanisms, and purification methods. The key points are:
1. Organic compounds are found in many materials and F. Wohler first synthesized an organic compound from an inorganic one.
2. Organic structures can be represented using Lewis structures, condensed formulas, and bond-line drawings. Isomers exist as structural and stereoisomers.
3. Compounds are classified as aliphatic, alicyclic, aromatic, and by functional groups. Nomenclature follows IUPAC rules.
This document defines parts per million (ppm) as the number of units of mass of a contaminant per million units of total mass. It provides an example that 1 ppm in soils and sediments equals 1 mg of substance per kg of solid. The document also presents the formula for calculating ppm and works through two practice problems calculating ppm concentrations given the mass of solute and solution. It finds that the concentration of calcium ions is 76 ppm in the first example and the concentration of ethanol is 230000 ppm in the second example.
This document discusses greenhouse gases and global climate change. It defines greenhouse gases as gases that cause the greenhouse effect and trap heat in the lower atmosphere. It then defines global climate change as identifiable changes in Earth's climate that last for decades or longer, and are usually caused by either natural processes or human activities that release greenhouse gases. The document goes on to explain that current climate changes happening include warming oceans and atmospheres and melting ice, and that these changes are extremely likely to be caused by human-caused greenhouse gases according to the IPCC. The effects of continued climate change will include more extreme weather, sea level rise, damage to ecosystems and increased species extinctions.
The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the properties of solids, liquids, and gases in terms of the motion and interaction of their particles. It states that all matter is made up of tiny particles that are constantly moving, with the speed and freedom of motion of the particles determining whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas. Changes in temperature can cause a substance to change states by altering the kinetic energy and interactions between its particles.
This document provides information about volcanoes and volcanic eruptions. It begins with a pre-assessment quiz about volcanic characteristics and eruptions. It then discusses the different types of volcanoes including shield, cinder cone, and composite volcanoes. The document outlines the primary factors that affect volcanic eruptive styles such as magma temperature, composition, and gas content. It also describes the different types of eruptions from phreatic to plinian. Finally, it discusses how volcanoes can be used as sources of geothermal energy and provides signs of an impending volcanic eruption.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. Hydrocarbons only contain carbon and hydrogen, forming chains and branches with single, double, or triple bonds between carbons. Functional groups include alcohols, acids, esters, ethers, amines, amides, ketones, and aldehydes. Organic reactions include substitution, addition, fermentation, saponification, polymerization, esterification, combustion, cracking, and fractional distillation. Hydrocarbons have low melting points and are nonpolar and nonconductive.
1. There are three classes of strong electrolytes: strong acids, strong bases, and most water soluble salts. Weak acids and bases only partially dissociate in water.
2. pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in a solution. Low pH indicates high [H+] and an acidic solution, while high pH indicates low [H+] and a basic solution. Household substances like coffee, milk, and baking soda have different pH values.
3. The acid dissociation constant Ka and base dissociation constant Kb are equilibrium constants that indicate the strength of an acid or base. Strong acids and bases fully dissociate while weak acids and bases only partially dissociate,
There are 8 key characteristics that define life:
1. Living things are made of cells, either unicellular or multicellular.
2. Living things reproduce, either sexually requiring two parents or asexually with one parent.
3. Living things are based on a universal genetic code stored in DNA that is inherited from parents.
4. Living things grow and develop over their lifetime.
This document discusses chemical bonding and Lewis dot structures. It explains that atoms combine to achieve stable electron configurations, often those of noble gases. Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred between atoms, creating ions. Covalent bonds form through electron sharing between nonmetals. Lewis dot structures represent valence electrons and can show electron transfers in ion formation. Different bond types - ionic, covalent, and metallic - depend on differences in electronegativity between atoms. Practice problems are provided to determine bond type based on electronegativity values.
This document discusses molecular polarity and how to determine if molecules are polar or nonpolar. It defines polar and nonpolar covalent bonds based on differences in electronegativity between atoms. A molecule is polar if it contains polar bonds in an asymmetrical arrangement, whereas a molecule is nonpolar if the polar bonds are symmetrical or if all bonds are nonpolar. Examples of polar molecules include HCl and H2O, while nonpolar examples include CO2 and CF4.
1. Early atomic models proposed by philosophers like Democritus were later developed into scientific theories by scientists like Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr based on new experimental evidence.
2. Dalton's early billiard ball model of atoms was revised after Thomson discovered the electron and Rutherford found evidence of a dense nucleus through his gold foil experiment.
3. The current quantum mechanical model sees electrons as existing as probabilistic clouds around the nucleus rather than distinct orbits, though early models by Bohr still explained much of chemistry.
The document discusses different models of the atom, including Bohr's model and the quantum mechanical model. Bohr's model proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed orbits, but this was later found to be incorrect. According to the quantum mechanical model, electrons move in regions of probability called orbitals around the nucleus. Orbitals are defined using quantum numbers, which describe the electron's energy level, orbital shape, and orientation in space. Electrons are arranged into discrete energy levels and can move between levels by absorbing or emitting energy.
12. Powering the Cell-Cellular Respiration.pptLiezlValiente1
Cellular respiration is the process by which living cells convert glucose into energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose and produces a small amount of ATP. In the presence of oxygen, the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain further break down pyruvate from glycolysis to produce much more ATP. Without oxygen, fermentation pathways like lactic acid fermentation or alcoholic fermentation produce ATP and regenerate NAD+ to allow glycolysis to continue. Aerobic respiration is much more efficient at producing ATP.
The document discusses sound and how it is produced, transmitted, and heard. It describes how sound is a longitudinal wave that travels through matter by causing compressions and rarefactions in molecules. The speed of sound depends on the temperature, density, and elasticity of the medium, being fastest in solids and slowest in gases. It also discusses how the human ear detects sound waves, with the outer ear funneling sound to the eardrum, middle ear bones vibrating the fluid-filled inner ear, and inner ear hair cells converting this into electrical signals sent to the brain.
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and antibodies throughout the body while removing waste products such as carbon dioxide. It consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps blood through three types of circulation - systemic, coronary, and pulmonary. Blood travels from the heart through arteries, to capillaries where exchange occurs, and returns to the heart via veins. The circulatory system is vital for sustaining life.
Biogeochemical cycles describe the movement of elements and molecules through biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. Key cycles include carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. In these cycles, matter is transferred between living organisms, non-living matter like soil and water, and long-term stores like fossil fuels and sedimentary rocks. The recycling of nutrients through biogeochemical cycles is essential for sustaining life on Earth.
This document provides an overview of magma, volcanoes, and volcanic eruptions. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
Magma is molten rock beneath the Earth's surface that rises towards the surface through vents called volcanoes. There are different types of volcanoes that produce eruptions ranging from gentle flows to catastrophic explosions, depending on the viscosity and gas content of the magma. The composition and viscosity of magmas influence the type of eruption, whether nonexplosive eruptions producing lava flows or explosive eruptions ejecting tephra and forming eruption columns and pyroclastic flows.
Seismic waves from earthquakes and explosions allow scientists to map the interior of Earth. Layers are identified by how fast p-waves and s-waves travel through materials with different densities and states. The crust is thin and varies in thickness and composition between continents and oceans. The mantle below is hot and convects slowly. The outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid, and their rotation generates Earth's magnetic field.
The document outlines the schedule and topics for a mid-year in-service training for teachers from February 2-4, 2022. On the first day, there will be presentations on Covid-19 updates and health status, as well as Filipino orthography. The second day will involve workshops for crafting project proposals, action plans, and monitoring/evaluation tools. On the final day, teachers will present and critique their outputs and receive certificates. The training aims to provide professional development on various teaching-related topics over the course of three days.
This document discusses two early atomic models:
1) J.J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model from 1897 which viewed the atom as a uniform positively charged sphere with electrons embedded inside like raisins in a pudding.
2) Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment from 1908 which found that most alpha particles passed through a gold foil with little deflection, but some bounced off at sharp angles, indicating the positive charge of atoms must be concentrated in a small, dense nucleus.
3) Rutherford concluded atoms have a small, dense positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons, overturning the plum pudding model - this came to be called the Rutherford model of the atom.
This document outlines a demonstration teaching session on electricity generation, transmission, and distribution that was presented at Bangui National High School - Main Campus in Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. The presentation covered how electrical energy is generated at power plants and transmitted through power towers, transmission lines, and step-up transformers before being distributed to neighborhoods through step-down transformers. It also engaged students in activities to identify different electrical sources like solar, wind, and hydro power plants and explain the components involved in transporting electricity from generators to consumers.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
2. 15-2
Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon
15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of
Organic Molecules
15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons
15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions
15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups
15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules
15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules
3. 15-3
Bonding Properties of Carbon
• Carbon forms covalent bonds in all its elemental forms
and compounds.
– The ground state electron configuration of C is [He]2s22p2; the
formation of carbon ions is therefore energetically unfavorable.
– C has an electronegativity of 2.5, which is midway between that
of most metals and nonmetals. C prefers to share electrons.
• Carbon exhibits catenation, the ability to bond to itself
and form stable chain, ring, and branched compounds.
– The small size of the C atom allows it to form short, strong
bonds.
– The tetrahedral shape of the C atom allows catenation.
5. 15-5
Comparison of Carbon and Silicon
• As atomic size increases down the group, bonds
between identical atoms become longer and weaker.
– A C–C bond is much stronger than a Si–Si bond.
• The bond energies of a C–C bond, a C–O bond, and a
C–Cl bond are very similar.
– C compounds can undergo a variety of reactions and remain
stable, while Si compounds cannot.
• Si has low energy d orbitals available for reaction,
allowing Si compounds to be more reactive than C
compounds.
6. 15-6
Diversity and Reactivity of Organic Molecules
• Many organic compounds contain heteroatoms, atoms
other than C and H.
– The most common of these are O, N, and the halogens.
• Most reactions involve the interaction of electron rich
area in one molecule with an electron poor site in
another.
– C–C bonds and C–H bonds tend to be unreactive.
– Bonds between C and a heteroatom are usually polar, creating
an imbalance in electron density and providing a site for
reactions to occur.
8. 15-8
Carbon Skeletons
Each C atom can form a maximum of 4 bonds.
Groups joined by a single bond can rotate, so there are
often several different arrangements of a given carbon
skeleton that are equivalent:
10. 15-10
Drawing Carbon Skeletons
Each C atom can form a maximum of four bonds.
These may be four single bonds, OR one double and two single bonds,
OR one triple and one single bond.
The arrangement of C atoms determines the skeleton, so a
straight chain and a bent chain represent the same
skeleton.
Groups joined by a single bond can rotate freely, so a
branch pointing down is the same as one point up.
11. 15-11
Figure 15.4 Adding the H-atom skin to the C-atom skeleton.
A C atom single-bonded to one
other atom gets three H atoms.
A C atom single-bonded to two
other atoms gets two H atoms.
A C atom single-bonded to three
other atoms gets one H atom. A C atom single-bonded to four other atoms
is already fully bonded (no H atoms).
12. 15-12
Figure 15.4 continued
A double-bonded C atom is
treated as if it were bonded to
two other atoms.
A double- and single-bonded C
atom or a triple-bonded C atom is
treated as if it were bonded to three
other atoms.
13. 15-13
Sample Problem 15.1 Drawing Hydrocarbons
PLAN: In each case, we draw the longest carbon chain first and
then work down to smaller chains with branches at
different points along them. Then we add H atoms to give
each C a total of four bonds.
PROBLEM: Draw structures that have different atom arrangements
for hydrocarbons with
(a) Six C atoms, no multiple bonds, and no rings
(b) Four C atoms, one double bond, and no rings
(c) Four C atoms, no multiple bonds, and one ring
14. 15-14
Sample Problem 15.1
(a) Six carbons, no rings
Alkanes, cannot be named
based on their molecular
formulas but with their
structures C6H14
16. 15-16
Sample Problem 15.1
(c) Compounds with four C atoms and one ring
Organic chemists use a systematic set of rules,
called the IUPAC rules, to name organic
molecules based on their structural formulas
instead of their chemical formulas.
17. 15-17
Alkanes
Hydrocarbons contain only C and H.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds
and are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons.
The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2, where n is
any positive integer.
Alkanes comprise a homologous series, a group of
compounds in which each member differs from the next by
a –CH2– group.
18. 15-18
Naming Organic Compounds
The root name of the compound is determined from the
number of C atoms in the longest continuous chain.
The name of any organic compound is comprised of three
portions:
PREFIX + ROOT + SUFFIX
The prefix identifies any groups attached to the main
chain.
The suffix indicates the type of organic compound, and is
placed after the root.
The suffix for an alkane is –ane.
19. 15-19
Table 15.1 Numerical Roots for Carbon Chains and Branches
Roots Number of C
Atoms
meth- 1
eth- 2
prop- 3
but- 4
pent- 5
hex- 6
hept- 7
oct- 8
non- 9
dec- 10
25. 15-25
Constitutional Isomers
Constitutional or structural isomers have the same
molecular formula but a different arrangement of the
bonded atoms.
A straight-chain alkane may have many branched
structural isomers.
Structural isomers are different compounds and have
different properties.
If the isomers contain the same functional groups, their properties
will still be similar.
27. 15-27
Chiral Molecules
Stereoisomers are molecules with the same arrangement
of atoms but different orientations of groups in space.
Optical isomers are mirror images of each other that
cannot be superimposed.
A molecule must be asymmetric in order to exist as a pair
of optical isomers. An asymmetric molecule is termed
chiral.
Typically, a carbon atom is a chiral center if it is bonded to four different
groups.
28. 15-28
Figure 15.8 An analogy for optical isomers.
If two compounds are mirror images of each other that cannot
be superimposed, they are called optical isomers.
29. 15-29
Figure 15.9 Two chiral molecules.
optical isomers of 3-methylhexane optical isomers of alanine
30. 15-30
Optical Activity
Optical isomers have identical physical properties, except
that they rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite
directions.
A chiral compound is optically active; i.e., it rotates the
plane of polarized light.
A compound that rotates the plane of light clockwise is
called dextrorotatory, while a compound that rotates the
plane of light counterclockwise is called levorotatory.
In their chemical properties, optical isomers differ only in
a chiral (asymmetric) environment.
31. 15-31
Figure 15.10 The rotation of plane-polarized light by an optically
active substance.
32. 15-32
Figure 15.11 The binding site of an enzyme.
An enzyme provides a chiral environment and therefore distinguishes
one optical isomer from another. The shape of one optical isomer fits the
binding site, but the mirror image shape of the other isomer does not.
33. 15-33
Naproxen
Many drugs are chiral molecules. One optical isomer has a
certain biological activity while the other has a different type of
activity or none at all.
34. 15-34
Alkenes
A hydrocarbon that contains at least one C=C bond is
called an alkene.
Alkenes are unsaturated and have the general formula
CnH2n.
To name an alkene, the root name is determined by the
number of C atoms in the longest chain that also
contains the double bond.
The C chain is numbered from the end closest to the double bond.
The suffix for alkenes is –ene.
35. 15-35
Geometric Isomers
The double bond of an alkene restricts rotation, so that
the relative positions of the atoms attached to the double
bond are fixed.
Alkenes may exist as geometric or cis-trans isomers,
which differ in the orientation of the groups attached to
the double bond.
Geometric isomers have different physical properties.
37. 15-37
Figure 15.12 The initial chemical event in vision and the change in
the shape of retinal.
38. 15-38
Alkynes
An alkyne is a hydrocarbon that contains at least one
CΞC triple bond.
Alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2 and they are
also considred unsaturated carbons.
Alkynes are named in the same way as alkenes, using
the suffix –yne.
39. 15-39
Sample Problem 15.2 Naming Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
PROBLEM: Give the systematic name for each of the following,
indicate the chiral center in part (d), and draw two
geometric isomers for part (e).
PLAN: For (a) to (c), we find the longest continuous chain (root) and
add the suffix –ane because there are only single bonds. Then
we name the branches, numbering the C chain from the end
closest to the first branch. For (d) and (e) the longest chain must
include the double bond.
44. 15-44
Tools of the Laboratory Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
Figure B15.1 The basis of proton spin resonance.
45. 15-45
Tools of the Laboratory
Figure B15.2 The 1H-NMR spectrum of acetone.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
46. 15-46
Tools of the Laboratory
Figure B15.3 The 1H-NMR spectrum of dimethoxymethane.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
47. 15-47
Tools of the Laboratory
Figure B15.4 An MRI scan showing a brain tumor.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
48. 15-48
Types of Organic Reactions
An addition reaction occurs when an unsaturated reactant
becomes a saturated product:
The C=C, CΞC, and C=O bonds commonly undergo
addition reactions.
In each case, it is the π bond that breaks, leaving the σ bond intact.
50. 15-50
Figure 15.14 A color test for C=C bonds.
This compound has no C=C
bond, so the Br2 does not react.
Br2 (in pipet) reacts with a compound
that has a C=C bond, and the orange-
brown color of Br2 disappears.
51. 15-51
Types of Organic Reactions
An elimination reaction occurs when a saturated reactant
becomes an unsaturated product.
This reaction is the reverse of addition.
The groups typically eliminated are H and a halogen atom
or H and an –OH group.
53. 15-53
Types of Organic Reactions
A substitution reaction occurs when an atom or group
from an added reagent substitutes for one attached to a
carbon in the organic reagent.
The C atom at which substitution may be saturated or
unsaturated, and X and Y can be many different atoms.
55. 15-55
Sample Problem 15.3 Recognizing the Type of Organic
Reaction
PLAN: We determine the type of reaction by looking for any
change in the number of atoms bonded to C.
• An addition reaction results in more atoms bonded to C.
• An elimination reaction results in fewer atoms bonded to C.
• If there are the same number of atoms bonded to C, the
reaction is a substitution.
PROBLEM: State whether each reaction is an addition, elimination,
or substitution:
56. 15-56
Sample Problem 15.3
SOLUTION:
This is an elimination reaction; two bonds in the reactant, C–H and
C –Br, are absent in the product.
This is an addition reaction; two more C–H bonds have formed in the
product.
This is a substitution reaction; the reactant C–Br bond has been
replaced by a C–O bond in the product.
57. 15-57
Functional Groups
Organic compounds are classified according to their
functional groups, a group of atoms bonded in a
particular way.
The functional groups in a compound determine both its
physical properties and its chemical reactivity.
Functional groups affect the polarity of a compound, and therefore
determine the intermolecular forces it exhibits.
Functional groups define the regions of high and low electron density in
a compound, thus determining its reactivity.
60. 15-60
Alcohols
The alcohol functional group consists of a carbon bonded
to an –OH group.
Alcohols are named by replacing the –e at the end of the
parent hydrocarbon name with the suffix –ol.
Alcohols have high melting and boiling points since they
can form hydrogen bonds between their molecules.
63. 15-63
Haloalkanes
Haloalkanes or alkyl halides contain a halogen atom
bonded to carbon.
Haloalkanes are named by identifying the halogen with a
prefix on the hydrocarbon name. The C bearing the
halogen must be numbered.
65. 15-65
Figure 15.16 A tetrachlorobiphenyl, one of 209 polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
66. 15-66
Amines
The amine functional group contains a N atom.
The systematic name for an amine is formed by dropping
the final –e of the alkane and adding the suffix –amine.
Common names that use the name of the alkyl group
followed by the suffix –amine are also widely used.
67. 15-67
Figure 15.17 General structures of amines.
Amines are classified according to the number of R groups directly
attached to the N atom.
68. 15-68
Figure 15.18 Some biomolecules with the amine functional group.
Lysine (1°
amine)
amino acid found
in proteins
Adenine (1°
amine)
component of
nucleic acids
Epinephrine
(adrenaline; 2° amine)
neurotransmitter in
brain; hormone released
during stress
Cocaine (3°
amine)
brain stimulant;
widely abused drug
69. 15-69
Properties and Reactions of Amines
Primary and secondary amines can form H bonds;
therefore they have higher melting and boiling points than
hydrocarbons or alkyl halides of similar mass.
Amines of low molar mass are fishy smelling, water
soluble, and weakly basic.
Tertiary amines cannot form H bonds between their
molecules because they lack a polar N–H bond.
Amines undergo a variety of reactions, including
substitution reactions.
70. 15-70
Sample Problem 15.4 Predicting the Reactions of Alcohols,
Alkyl Halides, and Amines
PLAN: We first determine the functional group(s) of the reactant(s)
and then examine any inorganic reagent(s) to decide on the
reaction type. Keep in mind that, in general, these functional
groups undergo substitution or elimination.
PROBLEM: Determine the reaction type and predict the product(s)
for each reaction:
71. 15-71
SOLUTION:
Sample Problem 15.4
(a) In this reaction the OH of the NaOH reaction substitutes for the I
in the organic reagent:
(b) This is a substitution reaction:
(c) This is an elimination reaction since acidic Cr2O7
2- is a strong
oxidizing agent:
72. 15-72
Alkenes
Alkenes contain the C=C double bond:
Alkenes typically undergo addition reactions.
The electron-rich double bond is readily attracted to the partially
positive H atoms of H3O+ ions and hydrohalic acids.
73. 15-73
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Benzene is an aromatic hydrocarbon and is a resonance
hybrid. Its p bond electrons are delocalized.
Aromatic compounds are unusually stable and although
they contain double bonds they undergo substitution rather
than addition reactions.
74. 15-74
Figure 15.19 The stability of benzene.
Benzene releases less energy
during hydrogenation than expected,
because it is already much more
stable than a similar imaginary
alkene.
75. 15-75
Aldehydes and Ketones
Aldehydes and ketones both contain the carbonyl
group, C=O.
Aldehydes are named by replacing the final –e of the
alkane name with the suffix –al.
Ketones have the suffix –one and the position of the
carbonyl must always be indicated.
R and R′ indicate
hydrocarbon groups.
76. 15-76
Figure 15.20 Some common aldehydes and ketones.
Methanal (formaldehyde) Used
to make resins in plywood,
dishware, countertops;
biological preservative
Ethanal (acetaldehyde)
Narcotic product of ethanol
metabolism; used to make
perfumes, flavors, plastics,
other chemicals
2-Propanone (acetone)
Solvent for fat, rubber, plastic,
varnish, lacquer; chemical
feedstock
2-Butanone
(methyl ethyl ketone)
Important solvent
Benzaldehyde
Artificial almond
flavoring
77. 15-77
Figure 15.21 The polar carbonyl group.
The C=O bond is electron rich and is also highly polar. It
readily undergoes addition reactions, and the electron-poor C
atom attracts electron-rich groups.
78. 15-78
Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones
Reduction to alcohols is an example of an addition reaction:
Organometallic compounds, which have a metal atom
covalently bonded to C, add to the electron-poor carbonyl C:
79. 15-79
Sample Problem 15.5 Predicting the Steps in a Reaction
Sequence
PLAN: For each step we examine the functional group of the
reactant and the reagent above the yield arrow to decide on
the most likely product.
PROBLEM: Fill in the blanks in the following reaction sequence:
SOLUTION: The first step involves an alkyl halide reacting with OH-,
so this is probably a substitution reaction, which yields an
alcohol. In the next step the alcohol is oxidized to a
ketone and finally the organometallic reagent adds to the
ketone to give an alcohol with one more C in its skeleton:
81. 15-81
Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids are named by replacing the –e of the
alkane with the suffix –oic acid.
Carboxylic acids contain the functional group –COOH, or
Carboxylic acids are weak acids in water, and react with
strong bases:
82. 15-82
Figure 15.22 Some molecules with the carboxylic acid functional
group.
Methanoic acid (formic acid)
An irritating component of ant and
bee stings
Butanoic acid (butyric acid)
Odor of rancid butter; suspected
component of monkey sex
attractant
Octadecanoic acid (stearic acid)
Found in animal fats; used in making
candles and soaps
Benzoic acid
Calorimetric standard; used in
preserving food, dyeing fabric,
curing tobacco
83. 15-83
Esters
The ester group is formed by the reaction of an alcohol and a
carboxylic acid.
Ester groups occur commonly in lipids, which are formed by
the esterification of fatty acids.
Esterification is a dehydration-condensation reaction.
84. 15-84
Figure 15.23 Some lipid molecules with the ester functional group.
Cetyl palmitate
The most common
lipid in whale
blubber
Lecithin Phospholipid found in all cell
membranes
Tristearin Typical dietary fat
used as an energy store in
animals
85. 15-85
Saponification
Ester hydrolysis can be carried out using either aqueous
acid or aqueous base. When base is used the process is
called saponification.
This is the process used to make soaps from lipids.
86. 15-86
Amides
An amide contains the functional group:
Amides, like esters, can be hydrolyzed to give a
carboxylic acid and an amine.
The peptide bond, which links amino acids in a protein,
is an amide group.
87. 15-87
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25)
A potent hallucinogen
Figure 15.24 Some molecules with the amide functional group.
N,N-Dimethylmethanamide
(dimethylformamide)
Major organic solvent; used in
production of synthetic fibers
Acetaminophen
Active ingredient in nonaspirin
pain relievers; used to make dyes
and photographic chemicals
88. 15-88
Sample Problem 15.6 Predicting the Reactions of the Carboxylic
Acid Family
PROBLEM: Predict the product(s) of the following reactions:
PLAN: We identify the functional groups in the reactant(s) and see
how they change. In (a), a carboxylic acid reacts with an
alcohol, so the reaction must be a substitution to form an
ester. In (b), an amide reacts with aqueous base, so
hydrolysis occurs.
90. 15-90
Figure 15.25 The formation of carboxylic, phosphoric, and sulfuric
acid anhydrides.
P and S form acids, anhydrides and esters that
are analogous to organic compounds.
91. 15-91
Figure 15.26 A phosphate ester and a sulfonamide.
Glucose-6-phosphate
Sulfanilamide
92. 15-92
Functional Groups with Triple Bonds
Alkynes contain the electron rich –CΞC– group, which
readily undergoes addition reactions:
Nitriles contain the group –CΞN and are made by a
substution reaction of an alkyl halide with CN- (cyanide):
93. 15-93
Sample Problem 15.7
SOLUTION:
Recognizing Functional Groups
PLAN: Use Table 15.5 to identify the various functional groups.
PROBLEM: Circle and name the functional groups in the following molecules:
carboxylic acid
ester
aromatic ring
aromatic ring
alcohol
2° amine
ketone
alkene
haloalkane
94. 15-94
Polymers
Addition polymers, also called chain-growth polymers
form when monomers undergo an addition reaction with
each other.
The monomers of most addition polymers contain an alkene group.
Condensation polymers are formed when monomers link
by a dehydration-condensation type reaction.
The monomers of condensation polymers have two functional groups,
and each monomer can link to two others.
98. 15-98
Figure 15.28 The formation of nylon-66.
Nylon-66 is a condensation polymer,
made by reacting a diacid with a
diamine. The polyamide forms
between the two liquid phases.
99. 15-99
Figure 15.29 The structure of glucose in aqueous solution and the
formation of a disaccharide.