INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
HISTORY
METHODS OF DNA SEQUENCING
MAXAM GILBERT METHOD
SANGERS METHOD
AUTOMATED DNA SEQUENCER
PYROSEQUENCING
SHOTGUN SEQUENCING
DNA MICROARRAY
APPLICATION
CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
HISTORY
METHODS OF DNA SEQUENCING
MAXAM GILBERT METHOD
SANGERS METHOD
AUTOMATED DNA SEQUENCER
PYROSEQUENCING
SHOTGUN SEQUENCING
DNA MICROARRAY
APPLICATION
CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
The chain-termination method developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in 1977. This method used fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method. Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger method was soon automated and was the method used in the first generation of DNA sequencers.
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication.
DNA sequencing: rapid improvements and their implicationsJeffrey Funk
these slides analyze the rapid improvements in DNA sequencers and the implications for these rapid improvements for drug discovery, new crops, materials creation, and new bio-fuels. Many of the rapid improvements are from "reductions in scale." As with integrated circuits, reducing the size of features on DNA sequencers has enabled many orders of magnitude improvements in them. Unlike integrated circuits, the improvements are also due to changes in technology. For example, changes from pyrosequencing to semiconductor and nanopore sequencing have also been needed to achieve the reductions in scale. Second, pyrosequencing also benefited from improvements in lasers and camera chips.
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication.
DNA Sequencing : Maxam Gilbert and Sanger SequencingVeerendra Nagoria
DNA sequencing is a technique to find out the exact arrangement of Nucleotides to make one strand of DNA. DNA sequencing helps in numerous ways from sequence information to paternity testing, mutation detection etc. Traditionally two approaches were used to solve the problem. First is based of enzymes and Second is based on ddNTPs to sequence the DNA using gel electrophoresis technique.
The chain-termination method developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in 1977. This method used fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method. Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger method was soon automated and was the method used in the first generation of DNA sequencers.
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication.
DNA sequencing: rapid improvements and their implicationsJeffrey Funk
these slides analyze the rapid improvements in DNA sequencers and the implications for these rapid improvements for drug discovery, new crops, materials creation, and new bio-fuels. Many of the rapid improvements are from "reductions in scale." As with integrated circuits, reducing the size of features on DNA sequencers has enabled many orders of magnitude improvements in them. Unlike integrated circuits, the improvements are also due to changes in technology. For example, changes from pyrosequencing to semiconductor and nanopore sequencing have also been needed to achieve the reductions in scale. Second, pyrosequencing also benefited from improvements in lasers and camera chips.
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication.
DNA Sequencing : Maxam Gilbert and Sanger SequencingVeerendra Nagoria
DNA sequencing is a technique to find out the exact arrangement of Nucleotides to make one strand of DNA. DNA sequencing helps in numerous ways from sequence information to paternity testing, mutation detection etc. Traditionally two approaches were used to solve the problem. First is based of enzymes and Second is based on ddNTPs to sequence the DNA using gel electrophoresis technique.
Modeling and parameter estimation of bacterial growth.
Baranyi Model
Three-Phase linear Model
Richards’ Model
Weibull Model
Logistic Model
Gompertz Model
Von Bertalanffy Model
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and medical research and discovery.
Knowledge of DNA sequences has become indispensable for basic biological research, and in numerous applied fields such as medical diagnosis, biotechnology, forensic biology, virology and biological systematics. Comparing healthy and mutated DNA sequences can diagnose different diseases including various cancers, characterize antibody repertoire, and can be used to guide patient treatment. Having a quick way to sequence DNA allows for faster and more individualized medical care to be administered, and for more organisms to be identified and cataloged.
sequencing presentation. providing deep and insightful points about Sanger sequencing, Maxam-gilbert sequencing, Illumina sequencing, and single molecule sequencing.
NEED OF GENETIC SEQUENCING
- Understanding the particular DNA sequence can shed light on a genetic condition and offer hope for the eventual development of treatment.
- An alteration in a DNA sequence can lead to an altered or non functional protein and hence to a harmful effect in a plant or animal.
- Simple point mutations can cause altered protein shape and function.
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and medical research and discovery.
Knowledge of DNA sequences has become indispensable for basic biological research, DNA Genographic Projects and in numerous applied fields such as medical diagnosis, biotechnology, forensic biology, virology and biological systematics. Comparing healthy and mutated DNA sequences can diagnose different diseases including various cancers,characterize antibody repertoire, and can be used to guide patient treatment.[5Having a quick way to sequence DNA allows for faster and more individualized medical care to be administered, and for more organisms to be identified and cataloged.
The rapid speed of sequencing attained with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the sequencing of complete DNA sequences, or genomes, of numerous types and species of life, including the human genome and other complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and microbial species.
The first DNA sequences were obtained in the early 1970s by academic researchers using laborious methods based on two-dimensional chromatography. Following the development of fluorescence-based sequencing methods with a DNA sequencer, DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster.
DNA sequencing refers to the general laboratory technique for determining the exact sequence of nucleotides, or bases, in a DNA molecule. The sequence of the bases (often referred to by the first letters of their chemical names: A, T, C, and G) encodes the biological information that cells use to develop and operate.Whole Genome Sequencing
•Allows doctors to closely analyze a patient's genes for mutations and health indicators.
•Can detect intellectual disabilities and developmental delays.
•WGS is currently available at Yale for patients in the NICU and PICU.
•Involves Genetics.Sequencing may be utilized to determine the order of nucleotides in small targeted genomic regions or entire genomes. Illumina sequencing enables a wide variety of applications, allowing researchers to ask virtually any question related to the genome, transcriptome, or epigenome of any organism.The spectrum of analysis of NGS can extend from a small number of genes to an entire genome, depending on the goal. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and whole-exome sequencing (WES) provide the sequence of DNA bases across the genome and exome, respectively.Capillary electrophoresis (CE) instruments are capable of performing both Sanger sequencing and fragment analysis. Fragment analysis is a method in which DNA fragments are fluorescently labeled, separated by CE, and sized by comparison to an internal standard. sanger and Maxam-Gilbert sequencing technologies were classified
DNA sequencing is a laboratory technique used to determine the exact sequence of bases (A, C, G, and T) in a DNA molecule. The DNA base sequence carries the information a cell needs to assemble protein and RNA molecules. DNA sequence information is important to scientists investigating the functions of genes.
In medicine, DNA sequencing is used for a range of purposes, including diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In general, sequencing allows health care practitioners to determine if a gene or the region that regulates a gene contains changes, called variants or mutations, that are linked to a disorder.
DNA sequencing refers to the general laboratory technique for determining the exact sequence of nucleotides, or bases, in a DNA molecule. The sequence of the bases (often referred to by the first letters of their chemical names: A, T, C, and G) encodes the biological information that cells use to develop and operate. Establishing the sequence of DNA is key to understanding the function of genes and other parts of the genome. There are now several different methods available for DNA sequencing, each with its own characteristics, and the development of additional methods represents an active area of genomics research.
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Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
2. DNA sequencing is the process of determining the
precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. It
includes any method or technology that is used to
determine the order of the four bases—
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine—in a strand
of DNA. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods
has greatly accelerated biological and medical
research and discovery.
3. What is DNA Sequencing:
Finding a single gene amid the vast stretches of DNA that make up the
human genome - three billion base-pairs' worth - requires a set of powerful
tools. The Human Genome Project (HGP) was devoted to developing new
and better tools to make gene hunts faster, cheaper and practical for almost
any scientist to accomplish.
These tools include genetic maps, physical maps and DNA sequence - which
is a detailed description of the order of the chemical building blocks, or
bases, in a given stretch of DNA.
Scientists need to know the sequence of bases because it tells them the kind
of genetic information that is carried in a particular segment of DNA. For
example, they can use sequence information to determine which stretches
of DNA contain genes, as well as to analyze those genes for changes in
sequence, called mutations, that may cause disease.
4. Aim OF DNA sequencing :
The main reason its to study genes and find out how they work, but there are a lot other
reasons to sequencing DNA. You can compare genes or specific sequences to find out
differences and similarities and for example classify organism, make a disease diagnosis,
find out the evolutionary line of an organism and so on.
A practical application could be the genomic therapy, a new way of medicine that can
make possible change the genes that cause a malformation and cure it. Trough the DNA
sequencing would be able to know where exactly into genome or a gene is the mutation
that causes the malfunction.
-Deciphering ( Code of Life )
-Detecting Mutation.
-Typing of Microorganism .
-Identifying of human haplotypes .
-Designating of polymorphism .
5. History OF DNA Sequencing :
DNA sequencing enables us to perform a thorough analysis of DNA because
it provides us with the most basic information of all: the sequence of
nucleotides. With this knowledge, for example, we can locate regulatory
and gene sequences, make comparisons between homologous genes across
species and identify mutations. Scientists recognized that this could
potentially be a very powerful tool, and so there was competition to create
a method that would sequence DNA. Then in 1974, two methods were
independently developed by an American team and an English team to do
exactly this. The Americans, lead by Maxam and Gilbert, used a “chemical
cleavage protocol”, while the English, lead by Sanger, designed a procedure
similar to the natural process of DNA replication. Even though both teams
shared the 1980 Nobel Prize, Sanger’s method became the standard
because of its practicality
6. 1 Basic methods (DNA Sequencing Method)
1.1 Maxam-Gilbert sequencing
1.2 Chain-termination methods ( Sanger Method )
2 Advanced methods and de novo sequencing
2.1 Shotgun sequencing
2.2 Bridge PCR
3 Next-generation methods
3.1 Massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS)
3.2 Polony sequencing
3.3 454 pyrosequencing
3.4 Illumina (Solexa) sequencing
3.5 SOLiD sequencing
3.6 Ion Torrent semiconductor sequencing
3.7 DNA nanoball sequencing
3.8 Heliscope single molecule sequencing
3.9 Single molecule real time (SMRT) sequencing
4 Methods in development
4.1 Nanopore DNA sequencing
4.2 Tunnelling currents DNA sequencing
4.3 Sequencing by hybridization
4.4 Sequencing with mass spectrometry
4.5 Microfluidic Sanger sequencing
4.6 Microscopy-based techniques
4.7 RNAP sequencing
7. Basic Method:
1-Maxam Gilbert Method
2- Sanger Method
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing :is a method of DNA sequencing developed
by Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert in 1976–1977. This method
is based on nucleobase-specific partial chemical modification of
DNA and subsequent cleavage of the DNA backbone at sites
adjacent to the modified nucleotides.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing was the first widely adopted method
for DNA sequencing, and, along with the Sanger dideoxy method,
represents the first generation of DNA sequencing methods.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing is no longer in widespread use,
having been supplanted by next-generation sequencing methods
8. An example Maxam–Gilbert sequencing reaction. Cleaving the same tagged
segment of DNA at different points yields tagged fragments of different
sizes. The fragments may then be separated by gel electrophoresis
9. Maxam Gilbert Method:
Through this technique the two scientists reported the sequence of 24 base
pairs nucleotide sequence of a lac operator.
The process uses purified DNA directly, chemically modifies the DNA and subsequently
cleaves it at specific base sites. The process is listed below in six steps.
Step 1: Purifying the Sequence
--. Enzyme, restriction ednonuclease is used and DNA is cut at a specific sequence. For
example, if the restriction endonuclease is 'Hind lll', it is responsible for cleaving the
sequence AAGCTT.
Step 2: Addition of radioactive phosphate
--. Since DNA has sugar phosphate back bone, phosphate present at the 3' end of the cleaved
DNA segment will be removed and replaced by radioactive phosphate (32p).
--. Phosphatase is the enzyme for phosphate cleavage while Kinase is the enzyme used for
radioactive phosphate addition.
10. Step 3: Seperating the sub fragments
--. The radioactive labeled DNA fragment is again treated with another restriction endonuclease. This
endonuclease further cuts the DNA fragment.
--. DNA fragments are ran through Gel electrophoresis to separate the two, labeled and unlabeled-end
sub fragments from each other resulting in sub fragments having one labeled and an unlabeled end.
--. The DNA sub fragment whose sequence is to be determined is purified from the gel and separated
from its other end-labeled sub fragment.
Step 4: Identifying the Bases
--. Four base specific chemical samples are produced. For example, chemical sample for Guanine will
cause the bond holding the base Guanine in position of the DNA to break. Similarly other chemicals
break the bonds holding bases Cytosine and another breaking both Adenine with some cleavage or
weakening of Adenine, the fourth one breaks the bonds holding the Thymine with some cleavage or
weakening of Cytosine bases. Thus, the four reaction samples are ;
A. G reaction (dimethyl sulfate (DMS) methylates Guanine).
B. C reaction.
C. A reaction with some G cleavage (DMS also methylates Adenine but does not result is strand
cleavege).
D. T reaction with some C cleavage.
11. For G reaction Piperidine is used. This causes loss of the methylated base and breakage of DNA backbone
at the lost base site. The sites are called apurinic site. For Adenine and Guanine glycoside bonds can also be
weaken with acid and later on piperidine used that causes depurination and strand breakage.
For Thymine and Cytosine, hydrazine is used which open up their rings. Later on piperidine is used to
create apyrumidinic sites by cleaving the bases and breaking the back bone.
On purines Adenine and Guanine cleavage apurinic sites are created where as, for pyrimidines,
cytosine and thymine cleavage apyrumidinic sites are created.
--. The end-labeled DNA fragment are further divided and placed in these four separate chemical
solutions.
--. As explained earlier, each reaction solution only treats a particular base therefore, for example in G
reaction solution, each DNA molecule will only have its Guanine bond broken and the base removed.
--. In this way every Guanine base in the DNA molecule will be removed either if its 100 bases away or
at the end of the molecule.
Step 5: Cleaving the DNA
--. When the bases are removed for each particular base removing reaction the DNA strands are
subjected to another reagent. This reagent breaks the DNA at the very particular points from where the
bases have been removed.
--. This results in DNA strands of different lengths.
12. Step 6: Reading the Sequence
--. Electrophoresis is performed again on the four reaction samples.
--. Each reaction is ran on its own lane and arranged according to its length.
--. Autoradiography: a technique that reads radioactive molecules on an x-ray film,
is used to detect the separated DNA fragments.
--. On reading the X-ray films, the bands of DNA fragments are revealed according to their length in each
separated lane of the four reaction mixtures
13.
14. Basic Methods:
Sanger Method.
Sanger’s method, which is also referred to as dideoxy sequencing or chain termination, is based on the
use of dideoxynucleotides (ddNTP’s) in addition to the normal nucleotides (NTP’s) found in DNA.
Dideoxynucleotides are essentially the same as nucleotides except they contain a hydrogen group on
the 3’ carbon instead of a hydroxyl group (OH). These modified nucleotides, when integrated into a
sequence, prevent the addition of further nucleotides. This occurs because a phosphodiester bond
cannot form between the dideoxynucleotide and the next incoming nucleotide, and thus the DNA chain
is terminated.
The Methods (Procedure )
Before the DNA can be sequenced, it has to be denatured into single strands using heat. Next a primer is
annealed to one of the template strands. This primer is specifically constructed so that its 3' end is
located next to the DNA sequence of interest. Either this primer or one of the nucleotides should be
radioactively or fluorescently labeled so that the final product can be detected on a gel. Once the primer
is attached to the DNA, the solution is divided into four tubes labeled "G", "A", "T" and "C". Then
reagents are added to these samples as follows:
15. ‘’G’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddGTP and DNA polymarase
‘’A’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddATP and DNA polymarase
‘’T’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddTTP and DNA polymarase
‘’C’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddCTP and DNA polymarase
As shown above, all of the tubes contain a different ddNTP present, and each at about one-hundreth the
concentration of the the normal precursors . As the DNA is synthesized, nucleotides are added on to the
growing chain by the DNA polymerase. However, on occasion a dideoxynucleotide is incorporated into
the chain in place of a normal nucleotide, which results in a chain-terminating event. For example if we
looked at only the "G" tube, we might find a mixture of the following products
16. Figure 1: An example of the potential fragments that could be produced in the "G" tube. The fragments
are all different lengths due to the random integration of the ddGTP's
17. The key to this method, is that all the reactions start from the same nucleotide and end with a specific
base. Thus in a solution where the same chain of DNA is being synthesized over and over again, the new
chain will terminate at all positions where the nucleotide has the potential to be added because of the
integration of the dideoxynucleotides .In this way, bands of all different lengths are produced. Once
these reactions are completed, the DNA is once again denatured in preparation for electrophoresis. The
contents of each of the four tubes are run in separate lanes on a polyacrylmide gel in order to separate
the different sized bands from one another. After the contents have been run across the gel, the gel is
then exposed to either UV light or X-Ray, depending on the method used for labeling the DNA.
Figure 2: This is a polyacrylmide gel of the reactions in the "G" tube (the same sequences seen in figure
1). The longer fragments of DNA traveled shorter distances than the smaller fragments because of their
heavier molecular weight.The blue section indicates the primer, the black section indicates the newly
synthesized strand and the red denotes a ddGTP, which terminated the chain.
18. As shown in Figure 2, smaller fragments are produced when the ddNTP is added closer to the primer
because the chains are smaller and therefore migrate faster across the gel. If all of the reactions from
the four tubes are combined on one gel, the actual DNA sequence in the 5' to 3' direction can be
determined by reading the banding pattern from the bottom of the gel up. It is important to remember
though that this sequence is complementary to the template strand from the beginning.
Figure 3: This is an autoradiogram of a dideoxy sequencing gel. The letters over the lanes indicate
which dideoxy nucleotide was used in the sample being represented by that lane. When you read
from the bottom up, you are reading the complementary sequence of the template strand
19. Automated Sequencing
With the many advancements in technology that we have achieved since 1974, it is no surprise that the
Sanger method has become outdated. However, the new technology that has emerged to replace this
method is based on the same principles of Sanger's method. Automated sequencing has been developed
so that more DNA can be sequenced in a shorter period of time. With the automated procedures the
reactions are performed in a single tube containing all four ddNTP's, each labeled with a different color
dye.
Figure 4: In automated sequencing, the oligonucleotide primers can be "end-labeled" with different
color dyes, one for each ddNTP. These dyes fluoresce at different wavelengths, which are read via a
machine
20. As in Sanger's method, the DNA is separated on a gel, but they are all run on the same lane as opposed
to four different ones.
Figure 5: Results of gel electrophoresis for the dye labeled DNA in automated sequencing. The image
on the left shows what the gel looks like if the four reactions are run in different lanes, as opposed to
the image on the right which shows a gel where all the DNA is run in one lane
21. Since the four dyes fluoresce at different wavelengths, a laser then reads the gel to determine the
identity of each band according to the wavelengths at which it fluoresces. The results are then depicted
in the form of a chromatogram, which is a diagram of colored peaks that correspond to the nucleotide
in that location in the sequence
Figure 6: Results from an automated sequence shown in the form of a chromatogram. The colors
represent the four bases: blue is C, green is A, black is G and red is T
22. Advantage of Basic method
1:-Improvement diagnosis of disease.
2:- Bio pesticide
3:- Identifying suspects .
Disadvantage :
1:-Whole genome can not be sequenced at once .
2:- Very slow and time consuming .
23.
24.
25. DNA fragments are labelled with a radioactive or fluorescent tag on the primer (1), in the new
DNA strand with a labeled dNTP, or with a labeled ddNTP