The document provides information on several DNA sequencing methods including: - The Maxam-Gilbert method which uses chemical cleavage to sequence DNA. - The Sanger method (chain-termination method) which uses dideoxynucleotides and DNA polymerase to terminate DNA strand extension at specific bases. - Next generation sequencing methods like 454 pyrosequencing, Illumina sequencing, and Ion Torrent sequencing that allow for massively parallel sequencing of many DNA fragments simultaneously. The history and basic principles of the Maxam-Gilbert and Sanger methods are described in detail as they were the first widely used DNA sequencing techniques. Subsequent methods aimed to improve speed, throughput and reduce cost of sequencing

1. Bahaddin A. Saber
ATCGCCCAAATTTTGGGG
DNA Sequencing
(Maxam Gilbert and Sangar Method)

2. DNA sequencing is the process of determining the
precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. It
includes any method or technology that is used to
determine the order of the four bases—
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine—in a strand
of DNA. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods
has greatly accelerated biological and medical
research and discovery.

3. What is DNA Sequencing:
Finding a single gene amid the vast stretches of DNA that make up the
human genome - three billion base-pairs' worth - requires a set of powerful
tools. The Human Genome Project (HGP) was devoted to developing new
and better tools to make gene hunts faster, cheaper and practical for almost
any scientist to accomplish.
These tools include genetic maps, physical maps and DNA sequence - which
is a detailed description of the order of the chemical building blocks, or
bases, in a given stretch of DNA.
Scientists need to know the sequence of bases because it tells them the kind
of genetic information that is carried in a particular segment of DNA. For
example, they can use sequence information to determine which stretches
of DNA contain genes, as well as to analyze those genes for changes in
sequence, called mutations, that may cause disease.

4. Aim OF DNA sequencing :
The main reason its to study genes and find out how they work, but there are a lot other
reasons to sequencing DNA. You can compare genes or specific sequences to find out
differences and similarities and for example classify organism, make a disease diagnosis,
find out the evolutionary line of an organism and so on.
A practical application could be the genomic therapy, a new way of medicine that can
make possible change the genes that cause a malformation and cure it. Trough the DNA
sequencing would be able to know where exactly into genome or a gene is the mutation
that causes the malfunction.
-Deciphering ( Code of Life )
-Detecting Mutation.
-Typing of Microorganism .
-Identifying of human haplotypes .
-Designating of polymorphism .

5. History OF DNA Sequencing :
DNA sequencing enables us to perform a thorough analysis of DNA because
it provides us with the most basic information of all: the sequence of
nucleotides. With this knowledge, for example, we can locate regulatory
and gene sequences, make comparisons between homologous genes across
species and identify mutations. Scientists recognized that this could
potentially be a very powerful tool, and so there was competition to create
a method that would sequence DNA. Then in 1974, two methods were
independently developed by an American team and an English team to do
exactly this. The Americans, lead by Maxam and Gilbert, used a “chemical
cleavage protocol”, while the English, lead by Sanger, designed a procedure
similar to the natural process of DNA replication. Even though both teams
shared the 1980 Nobel Prize, Sanger’s method became the standard
because of its practicality

6. 1 Basic methods (DNA Sequencing Method)
1.1 Maxam-Gilbert sequencing
1.2 Chain-termination methods ( Sanger Method )
2 Advanced methods and de novo sequencing
2.1 Shotgun sequencing
2.2 Bridge PCR
3 Next-generation methods
3.1 Massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS)
3.2 Polony sequencing
3.3 454 pyrosequencing
3.4 Illumina (Solexa) sequencing
3.5 SOLiD sequencing
3.6 Ion Torrent semiconductor sequencing
3.7 DNA nanoball sequencing
3.8 Heliscope single molecule sequencing
3.9 Single molecule real time (SMRT) sequencing
4 Methods in development
4.1 Nanopore DNA sequencing
4.2 Tunnelling currents DNA sequencing
4.3 Sequencing by hybridization
4.4 Sequencing with mass spectrometry
4.5 Microfluidic Sanger sequencing
4.6 Microscopy-based techniques
4.7 RNAP sequencing

7. Basic Method:
1-Maxam Gilbert Method
2- Sanger Method
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing :is a method of DNA sequencing developed
by Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert in 1976–1977. This method
is based on nucleobase-specific partial chemical modification of
DNA and subsequent cleavage of the DNA backbone at sites
adjacent to the modified nucleotides.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing was the first widely adopted method
for DNA sequencing, and, along with the Sanger dideoxy method,
represents the first generation of DNA sequencing methods.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing is no longer in widespread use,
having been supplanted by next-generation sequencing methods

8. An example Maxam–Gilbert sequencing reaction. Cleaving the same tagged
segment of DNA at different points yields tagged fragments of different
sizes. The fragments may then be separated by gel electrophoresis

9. Maxam Gilbert Method:
Through this technique the two scientists reported the sequence of 24 base
pairs nucleotide sequence of a lac operator.
The process uses purified DNA directly, chemically modifies the DNA and subsequently
cleaves it at specific base sites. The process is listed below in six steps.
Step 1: Purifying the Sequence
--. Enzyme, restriction ednonuclease is used and DNA is cut at a specific sequence. For
example, if the restriction endonuclease is 'Hind lll', it is responsible for cleaving the
sequence AAGCTT.
Step 2: Addition of radioactive phosphate
--. Since DNA has sugar phosphate back bone, phosphate present at the 3' end of the cleaved
DNA segment will be removed and replaced by radioactive phosphate (32p).
--. Phosphatase is the enzyme for phosphate cleavage while Kinase is the enzyme used for
radioactive phosphate addition.

10. Step 3: Seperating the sub fragments
--. The radioactive labeled DNA fragment is again treated with another restriction endonuclease. This
endonuclease further cuts the DNA fragment.
--. DNA fragments are ran through Gel electrophoresis to separate the two, labeled and unlabeled-end
sub fragments from each other resulting in sub fragments having one labeled and an unlabeled end.
--. The DNA sub fragment whose sequence is to be determined is purified from the gel and separated
from its other end-labeled sub fragment.
Step 4: Identifying the Bases
--. Four base specific chemical samples are produced. For example, chemical sample for Guanine will
cause the bond holding the base Guanine in position of the DNA to break. Similarly other chemicals
break the bonds holding bases Cytosine and another breaking both Adenine with some cleavage or
weakening of Adenine, the fourth one breaks the bonds holding the Thymine with some cleavage or
weakening of Cytosine bases. Thus, the four reaction samples are ;
A. G reaction (dimethyl sulfate (DMS) methylates Guanine).
B. C reaction.
C. A reaction with some G cleavage (DMS also methylates Adenine but does not result is strand
cleavege).
D. T reaction with some C cleavage.

11. For G reaction Piperidine is used. This causes loss of the methylated base and breakage of DNA backbone
at the lost base site. The sites are called apurinic site. For Adenine and Guanine glycoside bonds can also be
weaken with acid and later on piperidine used that causes depurination and strand breakage.
For Thymine and Cytosine, hydrazine is used which open up their rings. Later on piperidine is used to
create apyrumidinic sites by cleaving the bases and breaking the back bone.
On purines Adenine and Guanine cleavage apurinic sites are created where as, for pyrimidines,
cytosine and thymine cleavage apyrumidinic sites are created.
--. The end-labeled DNA fragment are further divided and placed in these four separate chemical
solutions.
--. As explained earlier, each reaction solution only treats a particular base therefore, for example in G
reaction solution, each DNA molecule will only have its Guanine bond broken and the base removed.
--. In this way every Guanine base in the DNA molecule will be removed either if its 100 bases away or
at the end of the molecule.
Step 5: Cleaving the DNA
--. When the bases are removed for each particular base removing reaction the DNA strands are
subjected to another reagent. This reagent breaks the DNA at the very particular points from where the
bases have been removed.
--. This results in DNA strands of different lengths.

12. Step 6: Reading the Sequence
--. Electrophoresis is performed again on the four reaction samples.
--. Each reaction is ran on its own lane and arranged according to its length.
--. Autoradiography: a technique that reads radioactive molecules on an x-ray film,
is used to detect the separated DNA fragments.
--. On reading the X-ray films, the bands of DNA fragments are revealed according to their length in each
separated lane of the four reaction mixtures

14. Basic Methods:
Sanger Method.
Sanger’s method, which is also referred to as dideoxy sequencing or chain termination, is based on the
use of dideoxynucleotides (ddNTP’s) in addition to the normal nucleotides (NTP’s) found in DNA.
Dideoxynucleotides are essentially the same as nucleotides except they contain a hydrogen group on
the 3’ carbon instead of a hydroxyl group (OH). These modified nucleotides, when integrated into a
sequence, prevent the addition of further nucleotides. This occurs because a phosphodiester bond
cannot form between the dideoxynucleotide and the next incoming nucleotide, and thus the DNA chain
is terminated.
The Methods (Procedure )
Before the DNA can be sequenced, it has to be denatured into single strands using heat. Next a primer is
annealed to one of the template strands. This primer is specifically constructed so that its 3' end is
located next to the DNA sequence of interest. Either this primer or one of the nucleotides should be
radioactively or fluorescently labeled so that the final product can be detected on a gel. Once the primer
is attached to the DNA, the solution is divided into four tubes labeled "G", "A", "T" and "C". Then
reagents are added to these samples as follows:

15. ‘’G’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddGTP and DNA polymarase
‘’A’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddATP and DNA polymarase
‘’T’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddTTP and DNA polymarase
‘’C’’ tubes : all four dNTP’s, ddCTP and DNA polymarase
As shown above, all of the tubes contain a different ddNTP present, and each at about one-hundreth the
concentration of the the normal precursors . As the DNA is synthesized, nucleotides are added on to the
growing chain by the DNA polymerase. However, on occasion a dideoxynucleotide is incorporated into
the chain in place of a normal nucleotide, which results in a chain-terminating event. For example if we
looked at only the "G" tube, we might find a mixture of the following products

16. Figure 1: An example of the potential fragments that could be produced in the "G" tube. The fragments
are all different lengths due to the random integration of the ddGTP's

17. The key to this method, is that all the reactions start from the same nucleotide and end with a specific
base. Thus in a solution where the same chain of DNA is being synthesized over and over again, the new
chain will terminate at all positions where the nucleotide has the potential to be added because of the
integration of the dideoxynucleotides .In this way, bands of all different lengths are produced. Once
these reactions are completed, the DNA is once again denatured in preparation for electrophoresis. The
contents of each of the four tubes are run in separate lanes on a polyacrylmide gel in order to separate
the different sized bands from one another. After the contents have been run across the gel, the gel is
then exposed to either UV light or X-Ray, depending on the method used for labeling the DNA.
Figure 2: This is a polyacrylmide gel of the reactions in the "G" tube (the same sequences seen in figure
1). The longer fragments of DNA traveled shorter distances than the smaller fragments because of their
heavier molecular weight.The blue section indicates the primer, the black section indicates the newly
synthesized strand and the red denotes a ddGTP, which terminated the chain.

18. As shown in Figure 2, smaller fragments are produced when the ddNTP is added closer to the primer
because the chains are smaller and therefore migrate faster across the gel. If all of the reactions from
the four tubes are combined on one gel, the actual DNA sequence in the 5' to 3' direction can be
determined by reading the banding pattern from the bottom of the gel up. It is important to remember
though that this sequence is complementary to the template strand from the beginning.
Figure 3: This is an autoradiogram of a dideoxy sequencing gel. The letters over the lanes indicate
which dideoxy nucleotide was used in the sample being represented by that lane. When you read
from the bottom up, you are reading the complementary sequence of the template strand

19. Automated Sequencing
With the many advancements in technology that we have achieved since 1974, it is no surprise that the
Sanger method has become outdated. However, the new technology that has emerged to replace this
method is based on the same principles of Sanger's method. Automated sequencing has been developed
so that more DNA can be sequenced in a shorter period of time. With the automated procedures the
reactions are performed in a single tube containing all four ddNTP's, each labeled with a different color
dye.
Figure 4: In automated sequencing, the oligonucleotide primers can be "end-labeled" with different
color dyes, one for each ddNTP. These dyes fluoresce at different wavelengths, which are read via a
machine

20. As in Sanger's method, the DNA is separated on a gel, but they are all run on the same lane as opposed
to four different ones.
Figure 5: Results of gel electrophoresis for the dye labeled DNA in automated sequencing. The image
on the left shows what the gel looks like if the four reactions are run in different lanes, as opposed to
the image on the right which shows a gel where all the DNA is run in one lane

21. Since the four dyes fluoresce at different wavelengths, a laser then reads the gel to determine the
identity of each band according to the wavelengths at which it fluoresces. The results are then depicted
in the form of a chromatogram, which is a diagram of colored peaks that correspond to the nucleotide
in that location in the sequence
Figure 6: Results from an automated sequence shown in the form of a chromatogram. The colors
represent the four bases: blue is C, green is A, black is G and red is T

22. Advantage of Basic method
1:-Improvement diagnosis of disease.
2:- Bio pesticide
3:- Identifying suspects .
Disadvantage :
1:-Whole genome can not be sequenced at once .
2:- Very slow and time consuming .

25. DNA fragments are labelled with a radioactive or fluorescent tag on the primer (1), in the new
DNA strand with a labeled dNTP, or with a labeled ddNTP

30. Thanks for your Attention