Cell Differentiation
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Multicellular organisms are composed of many different types of cells that cooperate and communicate to form organized systems. In humans there are over 10 trillion cells comprising 200 types of tissues. Each cell originates from a single fertilized egg cell and differentiates through activation of certain genes while others remain inactive, allowing cells to perform specialized functions. Bacteria also regulate genes in response to environmental signals, turning groups on and off. The lac operon in E. coli is a well-studied example of genetic control, where a repressor protein either allows or prevents transcription of genes involved in lactose metabolism depending on the presence of lactose.
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Cell determination and differentiation
Cell determination and differentiation are important processes in development. Cell determination involves genes being selectively activated or inactivated, committing an embryonic cell to a specific type. Differentiation then further specializes the cell, changing its size, shape and function. Gene expression plays a key role, with different genes being switched on or off in different cell types. The environment also influences cell fate and specialization.
Cell differentiation
Cell differentiation begins with undifferentiated cells that can become any cell type. Gene expression and environmental signals determine each cell's specialization. While all cells contain the same DNA, different genes are activated in different cell types. Specialized cells like nerve, muscle, and blood cells have unique structures and functions. Stem cells can renew themselves and differentiate into specialized cell types, making them useful for research and medical applications like treating disease and injury. Embryonic stem cells come from embryos and adult stem cells reside in tissues, with induced pluripotent stem cells generated from adult cells.
Diffrentiation,Cell diffrentiation,Types of differentiation,Mechanism,Factors...
Cell differentiation is the process by which a cell develops specialized structures and functions. It begins with totipotent cells that can differentiate into any cell type, and progresses to pluripotent and fully differentiated cells. Gene expression and transcription factors determine the cell type as environmental signals induce changes in protein production. The genetic material remains the same, but different genes are expressed depending on the cell's role. Differentiation results in diverse cell shapes, sizes, and specialized functions in tissues and organs.
Cell differentiation notes
The document discusses the cell cycle and differentiation. It describes the three main stages of the cell cycle as interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Interphase is broken down into Gap 1, synthesis, and Gap 2 phases. Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis is the final stage where the cell physically divides. Differentiation is when unspecialized cells become specialized cell types by turning on and off parts of their DNA. Stem cells can become any cell type while progenitor cells are somewhat specialized.
Cell fusion
Cell fusion involves combining two different types of cells into a single unit containing genes from both original cells. This process is used to create hybridoma cells that can produce monoclonal antibodies for medical research and treatment. Some benefits of cell fusion include being able to map chromosomes, produce monoclonal antibodies, and create new species, while weaknesses include low genetic stability, risk of contamination, low antibody production, high costs, and inability to do genetic engineering.
MORPHOGNESIS
Morphogenesis is the process by which organisms develop their shape through cellular processes like cell movement, division, death and changes in shape. These cellular movements collectively called morphogenetic movements play an important role in shaping developing embryos. Key cellular processes in morphogenesis include cell division, changes in shape and size, fusion, and death. Additional important processes are cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions mediated by cell adhesion molecules which allow cells to organize into tissues through differential adhesion properties. Differences in adhesion between cell types cause them to self-organize into patterns through thermodynamic principles.
Cell cell interaction
Cell-cell interaction refers to direct interactions between cell surfaces that allow cells to communicate and respond to changes. These interactions involve stable cell junctions that provide adhesion within tissues and control cell shape and function. The main types of cell junctions are tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions prevent movement of molecules between cells and form a selective barrier. Adherens junctions and desmosomes provide strength and signaling between cells. Gap junctions allow small molecules to pass directly between cells, allowing cell-cell communication. The loss of these cell-cell interactions can result in uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.
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Cell determination and differentiation
Cell determination and differentiation are important processes in development. Cell determination involves genes being selectively activated or inactivated, committing an embryonic cell to a specific type. Differentiation then further specializes the cell, changing its size, shape and function. Gene expression plays a key role, with different genes being switched on or off in different cell types. The environment also influences cell fate and specialization.
Cell differentiation
Cell differentiation begins with undifferentiated cells that can become any cell type. Gene expression and environmental signals determine each cell's specialization. While all cells contain the same DNA, different genes are activated in different cell types. Specialized cells like nerve, muscle, and blood cells have unique structures and functions. Stem cells can renew themselves and differentiate into specialized cell types, making them useful for research and medical applications like treating disease and injury. Embryonic stem cells come from embryos and adult stem cells reside in tissues, with induced pluripotent stem cells generated from adult cells.
Diffrentiation,Cell diffrentiation,Types of differentiation,Mechanism,Factors...
Cell differentiation is the process by which a cell develops specialized structures and functions. It begins with totipotent cells that can differentiate into any cell type, and progresses to pluripotent and fully differentiated cells. Gene expression and transcription factors determine the cell type as environmental signals induce changes in protein production. The genetic material remains the same, but different genes are expressed depending on the cell's role. Differentiation results in diverse cell shapes, sizes, and specialized functions in tissues and organs.
Cell differentiation notes
The document discusses the cell cycle and differentiation. It describes the three main stages of the cell cycle as interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Interphase is broken down into Gap 1, synthesis, and Gap 2 phases. Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis is the final stage where the cell physically divides. Differentiation is when unspecialized cells become specialized cell types by turning on and off parts of their DNA. Stem cells can become any cell type while progenitor cells are somewhat specialized.
Cell fusion
Cell fusion involves combining two different types of cells into a single unit containing genes from both original cells. This process is used to create hybridoma cells that can produce monoclonal antibodies for medical research and treatment. Some benefits of cell fusion include being able to map chromosomes, produce monoclonal antibodies, and create new species, while weaknesses include low genetic stability, risk of contamination, low antibody production, high costs, and inability to do genetic engineering.
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Morphogenesis is the process by which organisms develop their shape through cellular processes like cell movement, division, death and changes in shape. These cellular movements collectively called morphogenetic movements play an important role in shaping developing embryos. Key cellular processes in morphogenesis include cell division, changes in shape and size, fusion, and death. Additional important processes are cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions mediated by cell adhesion molecules which allow cells to organize into tissues through differential adhesion properties. Differences in adhesion between cell types cause them to self-organize into patterns through thermodynamic principles.
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Cell-cell interaction refers to direct interactions between cell surfaces that allow cells to communicate and respond to changes. These interactions involve stable cell junctions that provide adhesion within tissues and control cell shape and function. The main types of cell junctions are tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions prevent movement of molecules between cells and form a selective barrier. Adherens junctions and desmosomes provide strength and signaling between cells. Gap junctions allow small molecules to pass directly between cells, allowing cell-cell communication. The loss of these cell-cell interactions can result in uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.
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The term prokaryote means “primitive nucleus”. Cell in prokaryotes have no nucleus. The prokaryotic chromosome is dispersed within the cell and is not enclosed by a separate membrane. Much of the information about the structure of DNA comes from studies of prokaryotes, because they are less complex than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are monoploids they have only one set of genes (one copy of the genome). In most viruses and prokaryotes, the single set of genes is stored in a single chromosome (single molecule either RNA or DNA).
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Most bacteria are free-living organisms that grow by increasing
in mass and then divide by binary fission.
Growth and division are controlled by genes, the expression
of which must be regulated appropriately. Genes
whose activity is controlled in response to the needs of a
cell or organism are called regulated genes. All organisms
also have a large number of genes whose products
are essential to the normal functioning of a growing and
dividing cell, no matter what the conditions are. These
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synthesis and glucose metabolism. Note that all genes are
regulated on some level. If normal cell function is impaired
for some reason, the expression of all genes, including
constitutive genes, is reduced by regulatory
mechanisms. Thus, the distinction between regulated
and constitutive genes is somewhat arbitrary.
form4(BIOLOGY) chap 2 pt1
This document provides information on cell structure and organization. It discusses:
1. The history of cell discovery by Robert Hooke and the cell theory developed by Schleiden and Schwann.
2. The structures and functions of key cellular components in animal and plant cells, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, vacuoles, and cell wall.
3. The differences between animal and plant cells, such as plant cells having a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole. Active cells contain more mitochondria and green plant cells contain more chloroplasts.
Animal cell by ijaz ul-haq
Animal cells contain organelles that carry out specialized functions. The nucleus contains DNA which controls cell activities. The cell membrane surrounds the cell and is selectively permeable. Ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA. Mitochondria produce ATP through cellular respiration to power cell processes. The endoplasmic reticulum packages proteins and lipids. The Golgi apparatus receives proteins from the ER and packages them into vesicles for transport. The cytoskeleton gives cells shape and structure.
Cell biology: Classification of organisms
Cell biology studies the structure and function of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life and contains organelles that allow it to carry out essential functions like metabolism, energy production, waste removal, response to stimuli, and reproduction. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack organelles and eukaryotic cells which contain organelles within membranes. Organisms are classified into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia - based on characteristics like cell structure, nutrition, and complexity. The cytosol is the gel-like fluid found inside cells that allows for transport and chemical reactions and contains dissolved molecules, ions, and enzymes.
Cell biology
The document provides an overview of cell biology, including definitions of key terms like the cell and cell theory. It describes some of the main components of cells like the nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, lysosomes, and cell membrane. It also discusses different types of cells like prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells as well as specialized cells in the human body like nerve cells, blood cells, and reproductive cells. The document concludes with a brief discussion of cell physiology and the activities that take place in cells to maintain life.
Animal Cell Structure
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus.
DNA in animal cells is housed within the nucleus.
In addition to having nucleus animal cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles.
Organelles have a wide range of responsibilities that include everything from producing hormones and enzymes to providing energy for animal cells.
All living things are made up of cells that make up their body structure. Some of these living things are single-celled and other organisms are made up of more than one cell.
Fundamental unit of life cell
This document summarizes the key components and functions of cells. It describes that cells are the fundamental unit of life and consists of organelles like the plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids, vacuoles, and centrioles (in animal cells). It provides details on the structures and roles of these various organelle in supporting cellular processes.
Cell and cell organelles
The document discusses the structure and functions of the cell. It describes that the cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 and is the basic structural and functional unit of life. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack a nucleus, and eukaryotic cells which have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. The structures of the cell discussed include the plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and cytoskeleton. Each structure performs important functions essential for cellular activities.
Introduction Biochemistry for BPT Students
The document discusses the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It explains that prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus surrounded by a membrane as well as various intracellular organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts. The document also covers cell transport mechanisms, including passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport which uses ATP.
CELL STRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT.pptx
This document discusses cell structure, function, and cellular transport. It begins by defining the cell and outlining the three main points of the cell theory: 1) all living things are made of cells, 2) new cells are produced from existing cells, and 3) the cell is the basic unit of structure and function. It then describes the structure and functions of key cellular components like the plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles, and ribosomes. The final section discusses cellular transport mechanisms, distinguishing between passive transport (diffusion and osmosis) which moves substances down concentration gradients without energy input, and active transport which requires ATP and transports substances against gradients.
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Changes To Ecosystems
The document summarizes different types of ecological succession that occur in ecosystems. It describes how succession leads to increases in ecosystem complexity over time through changes in species composition and interactions. Succession can be driven by external environmental changes (allogenic) or internal biological processes (autogenic). Primary succession occurs on new, undeveloped habitats while secondary succession follows disturbances to existing habitats. Intensive human activities like agriculture, pollution, and development can reduce ecosystem complexity by simplifying species interactions and food webs.
Costs Benefits Consequences
The document discusses the costs, benefits, and consequences of interactions between species and with the environment. It explains that most symbiotic relationships exist in a stable balance, but that this balance can be impacted by the health of the host organism or environmental conditions. It provides examples of how factors like overcrowding or humidity can negatively impact hosts like seedlings or raspberries. The document also discusses how humans manage these relationships through improving environments, using drugs, pesticides, and herbicides.
Interactions In Ecosystems
This document outlines the main types of interactions that can occur between organisms in an ecosystem. It discusses biotic interactions like predation, grazing and competition. It also discusses symbiotic relationships between species including parasitism, commensalism and mutualism. Finally, it notes that interactions between species and with the environment can have various costs, benefits and consequences.
Human Impact
Human activities have significantly impacted ecosystems through simplifying their complexity, intensive food production methods, increased energy production, and pollution. Large-scale monocropping and factory farming have effects on biodiversity while fossil fuel usage and other industrial activities release pollutants into the air, water, and land. These human-driven changes to natural environments threaten their stability and health.
Symbiotic Relationships
Symbiotic relationships refer to intimate associations between organisms of different species that provide a nutritional advantage. There are three main types: parasitism benefits the parasite at the host's expense, commensalism benefits one species without affecting the other, and mutualism benefits both species. Examples of each type are given.
Biotic Interactions
- Biotic interactions include predator-prey relationships, plant-herbivore relationships, competition, and symbiosis. Abiotic interactions involve interactions between organisms and environmental factors like temperature, light, and nutrients.
- Density-dependent factors like predation and competition cause populations to decrease when densities are high and increase when densities are low. Density-independent factors like fires and floods impact populations independently of their densities.
- Predator-prey relationships can follow stable, cyclical, erratic, or extinction patterns depending on factors like carrying capacity and reproduction rates of both species. Predators benefit from food while prey benefit from reduced competition.
Energy
Photosynthesis converts sunlight into chemical energy through autotrophs. This process of energy fixation through photosynthesis provides energy for all organisms. Autotrophs include photoautotrophs that use light energy and chemoautotrophs that use inorganic molecules. Heterotrophs obtain energy by consuming other organisms, including herbivores that eat plants, carnivores that eat animals, and omnivores that eat both. Saprotrophs obtain nutrients by decomposing dead and decaying matter. Primary productivity is a measure of the energy converted by autotrophs, while net primary productivity accounts for energy lost to respiration and is available to primary consumers. Energy flows from producers to consumers to decomposers and is
Circulation Of Nutrients
Circulation of nutrients is essential for the continuation of life as elements are cycled between living organisms and the environment through the absorption of nutrients and release of wastes. Soil consists of inorganic and organic components and contains microorganisms, oxygen, and moisture that decompose dead and decaying materials, recycling their nutrients. Decomposers like fungi and bacteria break down organic matter chemically while detritivores like earthworms fragment materials physically, increasing the surface area for decomposers and improving soil structure and fertility.
Nucleic Acid Hybridisation & Gene Mapping
Nucleic acid hybridization can be used to identify particular DNA sequences using a nucleic acid probe. The technique takes advantage of DNA's property of complementary base pairing - if DNA is separated into single strands, the complementary strands will reform into double helices when conditions are right. A nucleic acid probe is a short, radioactively labelled single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule that binds to complementary nucleic acid sequences, allowing them to be identified. Genetic mapping uses genetic markers and recombination frequency during meiosis to locate genes on chromosomes and establish the relative distances between genes.
Structure Cell Components
The document discusses the structure and function of cell components. It notes that living systems are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. The carbon atom forms complex biologically important molecules through covalent bonds. Many polymers in cells are composed of monomers linked by dehydration reactions, which can be reversed by hydrolysis reactions. These polymerization and depolymerization reactions are important in cell metabolism and require energy to synthesize complex structures in anabolic or biosynthetic reactions.
Proteins
Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids that form various structures which determine the protein's function. The amino acid sequence forms the primary structure. Hydrogen bonding forms regular patterns of alpha helices and beta sheets as the secondary structure. Tertiary structure is the final 3D shape from hydrophobic interactions. Some proteins have quaternary structure as complexes of multiple polypeptide chains.
Cell Culture
The document discusses mammalian cell culture and its applications. It provides details on the conditions needed for cell culture, including aseptic conditions, growth medium, temperature, pH, and gas exchange. It also discusses primary and continuous mammalian cell cultures. Primary cultures have a limited lifespan while continuous cell lines can divide indefinitely and are used for research and biotechnology applications.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is made up of 3 main components that provide structure and allow movement in eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments are the thinnest and composed of actin, intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength, and microtubules are hollow tubes important for cell division and intracellular transport. Together these components maintain cell shape and allow organelles and the cell itself to move.
Plant Culture
This document discusses plant tissue culture and protoplast fusion. Protoplast fusion allows for crossing plants that would otherwise be unable to cross by mixing and fusing the protoplasts, or plant cells without cell walls, from different plant species. This forms a binucleate cell containing nuclei from both parental plants, introducing new genes. The process involves removing the cell wall from plant cells using enzymes, incubating them in a salt solution, and culturing the protoplasts in a suitable medium to encourage cell wall regeneration and growth.
Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that carry genetic information. DNA stores and transmits information through generations, while RNA assists in protein synthesis. Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The bases on DNA and RNA pair up through hydrogen bonding to form the double helix structure of DNA or single strands of RNA. Polymerase enzymes are necessary to copy DNA through replication and transcribe DNA into RNA through transcription.
Proteins
Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids that form various structures which determine the protein's function. The amino acid sequence forms the primary structure. Hydrogen bonding forms regular patterns of alpha helices and beta sheets as the secondary structure. Tertiary structure is the final 3D shape from hydrophobic interactions. Some proteins have quaternary structure as complexes of multiple polypeptide chains.
Prokaryotes _Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ structurally. Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles and have no nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have organelles like mitochondria and a nucleus enclosed in membranes. Both cell types share chemical and metabolic similarities like genetic material, cell membranes, and similar metabolic reactions, but prokaryotes are typically smaller without internal compartments.
Membranes
The document summarizes key aspects of cell membranes. It describes that cell membranes form a selectively permeable barrier and compartmentalize the cell. The basic structure is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded or attached proteins that transport molecules, act as receptors, and provide other functions. Cell membranes allow for communication within and between cells through transport proteins and junctions.
Proteins
Proteins are made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. The specific sequence and 3D structure of a protein determines its function. There are four levels of protein structure: primary structure is the amino acid sequence; secondary structure includes alpha helices and beta sheets from hydrogen bonding; tertiary structure is the overall folded shape from various weak interactions; and quaternary structure involves multiple protein subunits interacting.
Forensics
DNA fingerprinting is a technique used by forensic scientists to identify individuals by analyzing DNA samples left at a crime scene. DNA is unique between individuals except for identical twins. DNA fingerprinting involves isolating DNA from samples, cutting the DNA at specific locations, sorting the fragments by size, and comparing them to reference samples to determine if they match. While DNA evidence can help identify criminal suspects, samples must be properly analyzed and compared to get conclusive results for a court case.
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Cell Differentiation
- 6. The lac operon In an E. Coli cell growing in the absence of lactose , a repressor protein binds to the operator, preventing RNA polymerase from transcribing the lac operon's genes. The operon is OFF When the inducer, lactose , is added, it binds to the repressor and changes the repressor's shape so as to eliminate binding to the operator. As long as the operator remains free of the repressor, RNA polymerase that recognizes the promoter can transcribe the operon's structural genes into mRNA. The operon is ON
- 7. The lac operon Lactose absent :
- 8. The lac operon Lactose present :