Engineering Physics,
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
Simple cubic, Body-centered cubic, Face-centered cubic,
DIAMOND STRUCTURE,
Atomic Packing Factor of Diamond Structure,
Projection of diamond lattice points on the base
The ideal, perfectly regular crystal structures in which atoms are arranged in a regular way does not exist in actual situations. In actual cases, the regular arrangements of atoms disrupted . These disruptions are known as Crystal imperfections or crystal defects
Engineering Physics,
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
Simple cubic, Body-centered cubic, Face-centered cubic,
DIAMOND STRUCTURE,
Atomic Packing Factor of Diamond Structure,
Projection of diamond lattice points on the base
The ideal, perfectly regular crystal structures in which atoms are arranged in a regular way does not exist in actual situations. In actual cases, the regular arrangements of atoms disrupted . These disruptions are known as Crystal imperfections or crystal defects
The chemical Bond: Electronic concept of valency. Different types of chemical bond e.g. ionic, covalent, coordinate covalent metallic, dipole, hydrogen bond etc. Theories of covalent bonding and hybridization.
element of matter – The Atom, Bohr Model, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principlegkumarouct
In order to understand the structure of materials and its
correlation to property, we have to start form the basic
element of matter – The Atom,
The Bohr Model, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, Laws of Quantum mechanics, Orbital shape and quantum numbers, Atomic Bonding, Lennard-Jones potential
2. The chemical Bond: Electronic concept of valency. Different types of chemical bond e.g. ionic, covalent, coordinate covalent metallic, dipole, hydrogen bond etc. Theories of covalent bonding and hybridization.
Tensile, Impact and Hardness Testing of Mild SteelGulfam Hussain
The main purpose of this report is to study the mechanical properties and
failure mode of mild steel. Three types of standard tests i.e. tensile test, impact
test, and hardness test were conducted on the standard specimens of mild steel.
From the tests, results were obtained; Tensile strength, Impact strength, and
hardness were calculated. It was observed that Tensile Strength, Impact Strength
and Hardness of MS specimen were 1450.833 N/mm², 29.5 J & 59.25 HRB.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
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Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
2. Atomic Bonding
Interatomic forces present in atomic bonding can predict many physical
properties of materials ( i.e. melting temperature, elasticity, thermal expansion,
and strength).
3. As two ions approach each other, each atom exerts forces on the other.
Magnitude of Forces is a function of interatomic distance
Interatomic Forces
- Attractive Force, Fa
- Repulsive Force, Fr
rFr
Fa
AnionCation
Energy
5. RAN EEE
FdrE
Net Potential Energy between two adjacent ions
drFdrFE
r r
RAN
6. Bonding Energy
In assessing the performance of materials, it’s important to draw attention to the relationship
between material properties and structural elements.
Finding the minimum of a Potential Energy Curve corresponds to the energy released when
two ions form a bond, Bonding Energy.
Bonding Energy and shape of Potential Energy Curve vs. R varies from material to material.
Number of material properties depend on E0.
8. Atomic bonding
Bonding is association of two atoms with in each other.
Interatomic bonding can be categorized as:
◦ Primary bonding
◦Secondary bonding
9. Primary bonds are also knows as chemical bonds.
Primary bonding necessarily involves the valence electrons for its types.
The nature of bonds depends up on the electronic structure of constituents atoms.
Primary bonding arises from the tendency of atoms to assume the stable electronic structure like inert
gases.
Primary Bonding
11. »Ionic bond is due to electrostatic (columbic) forces of attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
» For two oppositely charged isolated ions, the attractive energy EA is a function of inter
atomic distance.
EA = A/r
Where A = [1/4€)] [Z1e x Z2 e]
€ =Permittivity of vacuum
Ionic Bond
12. »Ionic bonds are formed where the difference in electro -negativities of the constituent’s
atoms is considerable.
» That̕s reason ionic bonds are observed between the elements situated at the horizontal
extremities of the periodic table.
»In ionic bonds, bond energies generally range between 600 and 1500 kj/mole (3 and 8
eV/atom).
»NaCl is example of ionic bond.
Ionic Bond Cont……
13.
14.
15. » Covalent Bonds are formed by sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms.
» Two atoms of covalent bonds will contribute at least one electron each, to the bond and chaired pair
of electrons may be considered to belong to both of them.
»Covalent bonds are favored between similar atoms
i.e. non-metallic elemental molecules (H2,O2,Cl2 etc.)
Covalent Bond
16. Covalent Bond Cont….
»Covalent bonds are also observed in molecules containing dissimilar atoms such as
CH4, H2O, HNO3 etc.
»Covalent bonds are found in diamond, silicon germanium and right hand side of
periodic table such as GaAs,SiC etc.
»The numbers of covalent bond that are possible for an atom are determined by valence
electrons.
17. Covalent Bond Cont…
» Covalent bonds may be very strong as in case of diamond (melting point >3550 ºC).
» Covalent bond may be very week in case of Bismuth (melting point ~270 ºC).
»It is found in polymers where basic molecular structure is a long chain of carbon atoms
which are covalently bonded with two of their available 4 bonds per atom.
»e.g. in CH4.
18. Co-ordinate Covalent Bond
» A bond formed b/w two atoms when the shared pair of electrons is donated by
one of the bonded atoms is called Co-ordinate Covalent Bond.
» Atom which donates pair of electron called donor atom
» Atom which accepts pair of electron called accepter atom
» e.g. bonding b/w BF3 & NH3.
19. ♦Metallic Bonding is found in metals and their alloys.
♦Metallic atoms have one ,two or three valence electrons.
♦These valence electrons are not bound to any particular atoms in metals.
♦They are more or less free to drift thought the entire metal.
Metallic Bonding
20. Metallic Bonding Cont…
♦These electrons belong to the metals as a whole forming a sea of electrons around
different nuclei
♦ These nuclei also called ion cores having a net positive charge which is equal in magnitude
to the total valence electrons charge per atom.
♦Free electrons act as a binder to hold the ion cores together.
♦Metallic bond is non directional in nature and bonding energy in metallic bond may be
strong or weak.
♦ For example, bonding energy of mercury is 68 kj/mole and Tungston has a bonding energy
850 kj/mole.
21. Secondary Bonding
♦Secondary bond also known as physical bonds.
♦These are very weaker as compared to primary bonds.
♦Bonding energy are of order of 10 kj/mole.
♦ It is more significant in noble gases which have stable electron structures.
22. a) Fluctuating induced dipole bonds
b) Polar molecule induced dipole bond
c) Dipole dipole bond
Secondary Bonding Cont…
23. Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bond
♦ Also known as London Dispersion Forces.
♦ An atom is normally electrically symmetric means over all distribution of electrons is
symmetric.
♦ As we know in constant vibration motion that can cause instantaneous and short lived
disturbance in electrical symmetry for some atoms or molecules.
♦ Resulting in creation of dipole.
♦ Such dipole produces a displacement of electron distribution of adjacent atoms or
molecules which creates a dipole on second atom
♦
24. Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bond Cont…
♦ Resulting weak attractive forces between the two, these forces are temporary and short
lived.
♦ These are the weakest bonds.
25.
26. Polar Molecule Induced Dipole Bond
♦ Some molecules, have separation between negatively and positively charged regions due to
asymmetrical arrangement.
♦ These molecules are termed as polar molecule.
♦ These permanent dipoles arise due to the difference in the electro negativities of the two atoms.
♦ Polar molecules may also induced dipoles in adjacent non-polar molecule.
♦ So bond will formed as a result of attractive forces between the dipoles on two molecules.
27. Dipole Dipole bond
♦Vander Waal forces will also exist between polar molecules.
♦ These forces called Dipole Dipole Bonds or Permanent Dipole Bonds.
♦ The associated bonding energy are significantly greater than for bonds involving induced dipole.
♦Hydrogen bonding is a special case of permanent dipole bond.
♦Bonding energy incase of hydrogen bonding is 51 kj/mole.