Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
this slide focuses on all the acid base disorder pertaining to the respiratory system. it focus on the compensatory mechanism, causes, clinical features and treatment.
this slide focuses on all the acid base disorder pertaining to the respiratory system. it focus on the compensatory mechanism, causes, clinical features and treatment.
"The body maintains a balance of acids and bases in order to constantly maintain blood pH within a narrow range, despite the continuous generation of metabolic products. In turn, this allows the body to maintain cell enzyme systems in good operation conditions, together with the proper concentration of ionized (active) forms of various electrolytes such as Ca and Mg . This influences the speed of metabolic reactions and trans-membrane transportation systems (pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics)." - Luis Núñez Ochoa, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Unam, Mexico
Acid–base homeostasis is the homeostatic regulation of the pH of the body's extracellular fluid (ECF). The proper balance between the acids and bases (i.e. the pH) in the ECF is crucial for the normal physiology of the body, and cellular metabolism. this is detailed study on acid base homeostasis ,explaining definition of terms ,anion gap,ph , mechanism of hydrogen ion homeostasis ,ph of a buffer system , major buffer systems etc.
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For medical students, especially for early clinical exposure , it will help preclinical medical students. It gives details of about seven case reports in carbohydrate metabolism. MBBS students can use the information for theory exam also.
For medical students , it will help. Especially for preclinical students, as early clinical exposure, it will be very useful. Even for theory exam, it will help.
Extra cellular matrix is recently being explored in connection with cancer , metastases and autoimmune disorders. It is prepared for the benefit of both UG and PG medical and dental students.
Various neurotransmitters, mechanism of action and their physiological functions are explained and is useful for ug and pg students of medicine, neurology, psychiatry branches.
Porphyrias are difficult to diagnose . Here it is comprehensively explained to aid making diagnosis of porphyrias easier for the benefit of medical students and practitioners.
Renal function tests are very useful for effective clinical evaluation of renal failure for effective management. So it is useful for medical and allied professional students and clinical practitioners.
Test for pancreatic and intestinal functions are very important for clinical evaluation gastro intestinal disorders . So it will e useful for medical and allied professional students and practitioners.
Liver function tests and interpretation is a very important topic for students of medical and allied fields. It is essential for efficient practice of clinical and laboratory medicine.
Students of medical and allied subjects must be exposed to the concept of monoclonal antibodies for the efficient practice of clinical and laboratory medicine.
Coronary heart disease due to atherosclerotic process is the major cause of death.Lipids have been implicated for enhanced atherosclerosis. The major lipids involved are triacy glycerol and cholesterol which are transported in the plasma by lipoproteins. So a better understanding of lipid transport and its abnormalities is essential for medical and health professional students.
Water and electrolyte balance is clinically very important topic . It will be very useful for both UG and PG medical students. Efforts are made to explain basic concepts clearly.
It gives basic things regarding urinalysis and will be very useful for medical students, house surgeons, laboratory technicians and postgraduates in medicine.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
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Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
2. Metabolism is the basis of life.
Metabolism is possible only because of
enzymes.
Enzyme activity is influenced by pH
So, maintenance of acid base balance is
crucial for life.
3. 3
Acids take in with foods
Acids produced by metabolism of lipids and
proteins
Cellular metabolism produces CO2.
CO2 + H20 ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3
-
4. Acid is a protein (H+) donor
Eg : HCl H+ + Cl
Base is a proton (H+) acceptor.
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Strong acids completely dissociate
into their constituent ions in solution
eg. HCl
Weak acids partially dissociate –
lactic acid, carbonic acid
5. 5
Homeostasis of pH is tightly regulated
ECF= 7.4
Blood = 7.35 – 7.45
< 6.8 or > 8.0 death occurs
Acidosis (acidemia) below 7.35
Alkalosis (alkalemia) above 7.45
6. It is a mixture of weak acid and its salt or
weak base and its salt
Buffers resist pH change
Example : Bicarbonate buffer
NaHCO3 / H2CO3
Buffering capacity depends on actual
concentrations of salt and acid and its ratio.
Buffering capacity is maximum in the range of
1 unit ± of its pK value.
11. 11
Includes hemoglobin, proteins in ICF
Carboxyl group gives up H+
Amino Group accepts H+
Some side chains of amino acid residues
can buffer H+ - lysine, arginine, histidine
12. Weak acids dissociate only partially in the
solution.
Conjugate base is the unprotonated form of
corresponding acid.
For example: Cl-, HCO3
-
Weak acid H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Proton (conjugate
base)
Conjugate base of weak acid is strong.
Strong acid
HCl H+ + Cl- (conjugate base)
Conjugate base of strong acid is weak.
13. The dissociation of an acid is a freely
reversible reaction.
So at equilibrium, the ratio of dissociated
and undissociated particles is constant.
(Ka - dissociation constant)
Ka = H+ + A- dissociated / HA un
dissociated
H+ - proton A- - conjugate base or anion
14. It is the pH at which the acid is half
dissociated.
It is negative logarithm of acid
dissociation constant Ka to the base
10.
At pK value, Salt : acid ratio is 1:1.
pKa = - log 10 Ka
15. pH = pKa + log 10 ( salt / acid)
Due to metabolism mainly acids are produced.
The acids are of two types.
1.Fixed acids or non volatile acids
Eg. phosphoric, sulfuric acids, organic acids
such as pyruvic, lactic, ketoacids.
2.Volatile acid- carbonic acid
Carbonic acid ,being volatile is eliminated by
lungs as CO2.
Fixed acids are excreted by kidneys.
16. pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1.
pH = 6.1 + log 10 (bicarbonate/ carbonic acid –
0.03 x pa CO2 ) { paCO2- 40mm of Hg}
=6.1 + log 10 (24/1.2)
= 6.1 + 1.3 = 7.4
Arterial blood pH = 7.4
Bicarbonate represents alkali reserve and it is
twenty times more than carbonic acid to ensure
high buffering efficiency.
17. Histidine residue of hemoglobin can act as acid
or base.
Histidine has pKa value of 6.5 and it is efficient
buffer .
Deoxyhemoglobin in tissues accepts H+ ions to
form HHb. (KHb / HHb buffer )
Oxygenated hemoglobin releases H+ ions in
lungs.
Amino groups of hemoglobin interact with CO2
to form carbamino hemoglobin.
18. Action of hemoglobin buffer
In tissues, CO2 diffuses into erythrocytes to
form carbonic acid by carbonic anhydrase.
H2O + CO2 H2CO3
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
KHb accepts H+ and releases K+ .
Bicarbonate diffuses into the plasma where its
concentration low.
To maintain electrical neutrality, Chloride
(Cl- ) enters the erythrocytes.
This is called chloride shift.
19.
20. In lungs, oxygenation of haemoglobin
releases H+ which combines with
bicarbonate to form carbonic acid by
carbonic anhydrase.
Carbonic acid dissociates into water and
CO2.
CO2 is expired out by lungs.
Chloride comes out in exchange for
HCO3
- to maintain electrical neutrality.
21.
22. pH = pKa + log {bicarbonate (metabolic
component)/ carbonic acid-paCO2
(Respiratory component)}
Respiratory component is maintained by
lungs and Metabolic component is
maintained by kidneys.
Carbonic acid is a volatile acid so it is
eliminated by lungs.
The rate of respiration is controlled by the
chemoreceptors in the respiratory centre which
are sensitive to pH change of blood.
23. Functions
Reabsorption of bicarbonate involves the
reabsorption of bicarbonate filtered without
excretion of H+ ions.
Excretion of H+ ions
Here there is net gain of bicarbonate for each
H+ excretion. As the H+ ion excretion increases,
the excretion of H+ against concentration
gradient becomes difficult.
So in the distal convoluted tubules, urinary
buffers buffer the free H+ ions.
24.
25.
26. Two important urinary buffers are
1. Phosphate buffer
2. Ammonia
The maximum limit of acidification of urine is
4.5.
Normally 70 meq acid is excreted daily. In
metabolic acidosis, this can raise to 400
meq/day.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35. Term Symbol Normal value Range Unit
H+ H+ 40 36-44 nmol/L
pH pH 7.4 7.36-7.44 -
CO2 tension PaCO2 40 36-44 mm Hg
Base exces BE 0 –2 to +2 mmol/L
Total CO2 TCO2 25 23-27 mmol/L
Actual HCO3 HCO3 24 22-26 mmol/L
Standard HCO3 SBC 24 22-26 mmol/L
O2 saturation SaO2 98 95-100 %
O2 tension PaO2 95 80-100 mmHg
36. 36
If underlying problem is metabolic,
hyperventilation or hypoventilation
can help : respiratory compensation.
If problem is respiratory, renal
mechanisms can bring about
metabolic compensation.
37. 37
Principal effect of acidosis is depression of the CNS
through ↓ in synaptic transmission.
Generalized weakness
Deranged CNS function the greatest threat
Severe acidosis causes
Disorientation
coma
death
38. 38
Alkalosis causes over excitability of the central
and peripheral nervous systems.
Numbness
Lightheadedness
It can cause :
Nervousness
muscle spasms or tetany
Convulsions
Loss of consciousness
Death
39.
40.
41.
42. HCO3– level is 24 mEq/L
The normal range is 22-26.
When HCO3– level falls below 22 mEq/L (in
conditions like acute watery diarrhea, renal
tubular acidosis, addition of lactic acid and
ketoacids) metabolic acidosis results.
When the HCO3– levels exceeds 26 mEq/L (in
conditions like persistent vomiting, increased
renin-angiotensin activity, loop diuretics) it is
termed as metabolic alkalosis.
Kidney regulates HCO3– homeostasis.
43. It can be due to 1.Increased acid production
2. Decreased removal of acids by kidneys (renal
failure)
3.loss of bicarbonate
Increased acid production: The causes are lactic
acidosis in shock, septicemia, ketoacidosis in Von
Gierkes’s disease, diabetes mellitus and
starvation.
Loss of bicarbonate due to diarrhoea
(gastroenteritis).
44.
45.
46. In severe acidosis when pH falls below 7.20 (H+ ion
concentration >63 nEq/L), grave features like poor
myocardial performance, arrhythmias, hypotension,
pulmonary edema and hyperkalemia occur.
Similarly in severe alkalosis when the pH exceeds 7.5
(H+ ion concentration <28 nEq/L) features like mental
confusion, muscular irritability, seizures, arrhythmias,
generalized tissue hypoxia and hypokalemia occur.
Identification of these clinical features is difficult in a
sick child presenting pre-dominantly with the features of
primary disease.
Normal hydrogen ion concentration in our body is 40
nmol/l and the acceptable range is 36-44 nmol/L.
47. Anion Gap
It is a measure of unmeasured anions
A small amount of anion that cannot be
measured by biochemical investigations is
named as anion gap:
(Na+ + K+) = (Cl– + HCO3–) + AG
(Unmeasured anions) (Anion gap)
(135 + 04) = (100 + 24) + other anions
Anion gap = 8-16 mmol/L
High anion gap acidosis (HAGMA)
Normal anion gap acidosis (NAGMA)
51. Metabolic
acidosis (HCO3)
For every 1 mEq/L fall
in HCO3 PaCO2
should fall by 1 mm of
Hg (1-1.5)
Metabolic
alkalosis (HCO3)
For every 1 mEq/L
increase HCO3–
paCO2 should increase
by 1 mm of Hg (0.5-1)
52. Normal PaCO2 value - 40 mm Hg (5.3K Pa) - 36-44 mm Hg.
PaCO2 above >44 mm Hg respiratory acidemia due to
ventilatory failure
Decrease of PCO2 (<36 mm Hg) due to respiratory alkalosis.
95% ofCO2 produced is transported by the RBC
5% by plasma in dissolved (dCO2) and 0.1% as chemically
dissolved (carbonic acid).
The total CO2 (TCO2 ) includes dCO2 and H2CO3.
For every 20 mm of Hg increase of PaCO2, pH falls by 0.1
unit
For every 10 mm of Hg fall of PaCO2, pH increases by 0.1.
53. Failure of ventilation :
Depression of respiratory centre due to
disease or drug-induced respiratory
depression, head injury.
Paralysis of muscles (eg, myasthenia gravis,
muscular dystrophy)
Airway obstruction- foreign body –trachea ,
asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD).
Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
54. The biochemical findings are:
pH < 7.35
paCO2 > 45 mm of Hg (Hypercapnia).
Renal compensation occurs in 3-5 days.
compensatory metabolic alkalosis.
Acute respiratory acidosis
1mmol increase- for every 10 mm of Hg
PaCO2
Chronic respiratory acidosis, 3.5 mmol of
bicarbonate for every 10mmof Hg PaCO2
55. It is caused by hyperventilation. The causes for
hyperventilation are: Anxiety, salicylate poisoning
, artificial ventilation and pulmonary embolism.
The biochemical findings are
pH is increased > 7.45
paCO2 is decreased < 35 mm of Hg
Bicarbonate is normal in uncompensated
condition.
In compensatory metabolic acidosis, bicarbonate
will be decreased. Kidney responds to decrease in
paCO2 and excretes more bicarbonate.
56. 56
Conditions that stimulate respiratory center:
Oxygen deficiency at high altitudes
Pulmonary disease and Congestive heart failure –
caused by hypoxia
Acute anxiety ,Fever, anemia
Early salicylate intoxication
Cirrhosis, Gram-negative sepsis
57. 57
Mechanism: Renal loss of bicarbonate causes a
further fall in plasma bicarbonate (in addition
to the acute drop due to the physicochemical
effect and protein buffering).
Magnitude: An average 5 mmol/l decrease in
[HCO3-] per 10mmHg decrease in pCO2 from
the reference value of 40mmHg. This maximal
response takes 2 to 3 days to reach.
Limit: The limit of compensation is a [HCO3-]
of 12 to 15 mmol/l.
58. 58
1. Note whether the pH is low (acidosis) or high
(alkalosis)
2. Decide which value, pCO2 or HCO3
- , is
outside the normal range and could be the
cause of the problem. If the cause is a change
in pCO2, the problem is respiratory. If the
cause is HCO3
- the problem is metabolic.
59. 59
3. Look at the value that doesn’t correspond to the
observed pH change. If it is inside the normal
range, there is no compensation occurring. If it
is outside the normal range, the body is
partially compensating for the problem.
A patient is in intensive care because he
suffered a severe myocardial infarction 3 days
ago. The lab reports the following values from
an arterial blood sample:
pH 7.3
HCO3- = 20 mEq / L ( 22 - 26)
pCO2 = 32 mm Hg (35 - 45)
66. pH: 7.35 – 7.45
PCO2:
Males: 35 – 48 mm Hg
Females: 32 – 45 mm Hg
HCO3: 22 – 27 mEq/L
Base Excess:
New born (0 – 7 days): -10 to -2 mmol/L
Infant (1 week – 1 year): -7 to –1 mmol/L
Child (1 – 16 years): -4 to +2 mmol/L
Adult (>16 years): -3 to +3 m
67. Warm the area for 3-10 mins not > than 420C –
arterialization - 0.2 ml
Lithium heparin – fill 2 capillary tubes without
air bubble –cap both ends
Within 15 mins – analyze
> 30 mins , clotted sample – discard
Critical values
pCO2: < 15 and > 70 mm Hg
pH: < 7.2 and > 7.6