simple diagrammatic presentation of heme catabolism. highlighted the steps with explanation. Definition , causes, clinical features and biochemical investigation of various types of jaundice is explained in detail. congenital jaundice is included.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
https://userupload.net/8mky0eijld91
An understanding of the physiology of body fluids is essential when considering appropriate fluid resuscitation and fluid replacement therapy in critically-ill patients. In healthy humans, the body is composed of approximately 60% water, distributed between intracellular and an extracellular compartments. The extracellular compartment is divided into intravascular, interstitial and transcellular compartments. The movement of fluids between the intravascular and interstitial compartments, is classically described as being governed by Starling forces, leading to a small net efflux of fluid from the intravascular to the interstitial compartment. More recent evidence suggests that a model incorporating the effect of the endothelial glycoclayx layer, a web of glycoproteins and proteoglycans that are bound on the luminal side of the vascular endothelium, better explains the observed distribution of fluids. The movement of fluid to and from the intracellular compartment and the interstitial fluid compartment, is governed by the relative osmolarities of the two compartments. Body fluid status is governed by the difference between fluid inputs and outputs; fluid input is regulated by the thirst mechanism, with fluid outputs consisting of gastrointestinal, renal, and insensible losses. The regulation of intracellular fluid status is largely governed by the regulation of the interstitial fluid osmolarity, which is regulated by the secretion of antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary gland. The regulation of extracellular volume status is regulated by a complex neuro-endocrine mechanism, designed to regulate sodium in the extracellular fluid.
simple diagrammatic presentation of heme catabolism. highlighted the steps with explanation. Definition , causes, clinical features and biochemical investigation of various types of jaundice is explained in detail. congenital jaundice is included.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
https://userupload.net/8mky0eijld91
An understanding of the physiology of body fluids is essential when considering appropriate fluid resuscitation and fluid replacement therapy in critically-ill patients. In healthy humans, the body is composed of approximately 60% water, distributed between intracellular and an extracellular compartments. The extracellular compartment is divided into intravascular, interstitial and transcellular compartments. The movement of fluids between the intravascular and interstitial compartments, is classically described as being governed by Starling forces, leading to a small net efflux of fluid from the intravascular to the interstitial compartment. More recent evidence suggests that a model incorporating the effect of the endothelial glycoclayx layer, a web of glycoproteins and proteoglycans that are bound on the luminal side of the vascular endothelium, better explains the observed distribution of fluids. The movement of fluid to and from the intracellular compartment and the interstitial fluid compartment, is governed by the relative osmolarities of the two compartments. Body fluid status is governed by the difference between fluid inputs and outputs; fluid input is regulated by the thirst mechanism, with fluid outputs consisting of gastrointestinal, renal, and insensible losses. The regulation of intracellular fluid status is largely governed by the regulation of the interstitial fluid osmolarity, which is regulated by the secretion of antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary gland. The regulation of extracellular volume status is regulated by a complex neuro-endocrine mechanism, designed to regulate sodium in the extracellular fluid.
"The body maintains a balance of acids and bases in order to constantly maintain blood pH within a narrow range, despite the continuous generation of metabolic products. In turn, this allows the body to maintain cell enzyme systems in good operation conditions, together with the proper concentration of ionized (active) forms of various electrolytes such as Ca and Mg . This influences the speed of metabolic reactions and trans-membrane transportation systems (pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics)." - Luis Núñez Ochoa, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Unam, Mexico
For medical students, especially for early clinical exposure , it will help preclinical medical students. It gives details of about seven case reports in carbohydrate metabolism. MBBS students can use the information for theory exam also.
For medical students , it will help. Especially for preclinical students, as early clinical exposure, it will be very useful. Even for theory exam, it will help.
Extra cellular matrix is recently being explored in connection with cancer , metastases and autoimmune disorders. It is prepared for the benefit of both UG and PG medical and dental students.
Various neurotransmitters, mechanism of action and their physiological functions are explained and is useful for ug and pg students of medicine, neurology, psychiatry branches.
Porphyrias are difficult to diagnose . Here it is comprehensively explained to aid making diagnosis of porphyrias easier for the benefit of medical students and practitioners.
Renal function tests are very useful for effective clinical evaluation of renal failure for effective management. So it is useful for medical and allied professional students and clinical practitioners.
Test for pancreatic and intestinal functions are very important for clinical evaluation gastro intestinal disorders . So it will e useful for medical and allied professional students and practitioners.
Liver function tests and interpretation is a very important topic for students of medical and allied fields. It is essential for efficient practice of clinical and laboratory medicine.
Students of medical and allied subjects must be exposed to the concept of monoclonal antibodies for the efficient practice of clinical and laboratory medicine.
Coronary heart disease due to atherosclerotic process is the major cause of death.Lipids have been implicated for enhanced atherosclerosis. The major lipids involved are triacy glycerol and cholesterol which are transported in the plasma by lipoproteins. So a better understanding of lipid transport and its abnormalities is essential for medical and health professional students.
Water and electrolyte balance is clinically very important topic . It will be very useful for both UG and PG medical students. Efforts are made to explain basic concepts clearly.
It gives basic things regarding urinalysis and will be very useful for medical students, house surgeons, laboratory technicians and postgraduates in medicine.
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group of receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a teamof receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a team wwww.lisywomensclinic.co.za/
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
2. Metabolism is the basis of life.
Metabolism is possible only because of
enzymes.
Enzyme activity is influenced by pH of the
surrounding medium.
So maintenance of acid base balance is
crucial for life.
3. Acid is a protein (H+) donor
Example HCl H+ + Cl
Base is a proton (H+) acceptor.
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Strong acids completely dissociate
into their constituent ions in
solution - HCl
Weak acids partially dissociate –
lactic acid, carbonic acid
8. It is a mixture of weak acid and its salt or
weak base and its salt, which resist pH
change on addition of a small amount of
strong acid or alkali.
Example : Bicarbonate buffer
Na+ HCO3
- / H2CO3
The buffering capacity depends on actual
concentrations of salt and acid, and its ratio.
Buffering capacity is maximum in the range
of 1 unit ± of its pK value.
11. 11
Includes hemoglobin, proteins in ICF
Carboxyl group gives up H+
Amino Group accepts H+
Some Side chains of amino acid
residues can buffer H+ - lysine,
arginine, histidine
12. Weak acids dissociate only partially in the
solution.
Conjugate base is the unprotonated form of
corresponding acid.
For example: Cl- , HCO3
-
Weak acid H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Proton (conjugate
base)
Conjugate base of weak acid is strong.
Strong acid
HCl H+ + Cl- (conjugate base)
Conjugate base of strong acid is weak.
13. The dissociation of an acid is a freely
reversible reaction.
So at equilibrium, the ratio of
dissociated and undissociated
particles is constant. (Ka is the
dissociation constant)
Ka = H+ + A- dissociated / HA un
dissociated
H+ - proton A- - conjugate base or
anion
14. It is the pH at which the acid is
half dissociated.
It is negative logarithm of acid
dissociation constant Ka to the
base 10.
At pK value, Salt : acid ratio is
1:1.
pKa = - log 10 Ka
15. pH = pKa + log 10 ( salt / acid)
Due to metabolism mainly acids are
produced. The acids are of two types.
1.Fixed acids or non volatile acids
Example phosphoric , sulfuric acids,
organic acids such as pyruvic , lactic,
ketoacids.
2.Volatile acid- carbonic acid
Carbonic acid is being volatile, it is
eliminated by lungs as CO2.
Fixed acids are excreted by kidneys.
16. pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1.
pH = 6.1 + log 10 (bicarbonate/ carbonic
acid – 0.03 x pa CO2 ) { paCO2- 40mm
of Hg} =6.1 + log 10 (24/1.2)
= 6.1 + 1.3 = 7.4
Arterial blood pH = 7.4
Bicarbonate represents alkali reserve and it
is twenty times more than carbonic acid to
ensure high buffering efficiency.
18. Histidine residue of hemoglobin can act as
acid or base.
Histidine amino acid has pKa value of 6.5 and
it is efficient buffer .
Deoxygnatered hemoglobin in tissues accepts
H+ ions to form HHb. (KHb / HHb buffer )
Oxygenated hemoglobin releases H+ ions in
lungs.
Amino groups of hemoglobin interact with
CO2 to form carbamino hemoglobin.
19. Action of hemoglobin buffer
In the tissues, CO2 diffuses into erythrocytes
and gets converted to carbonic acid by
carbonic anhydrase.
H2O + CO2 H2CO3
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
KHb accepts H+ and releases K+ .
Bicarbonate diffuses into the plasma where
its concentration low.
To maintain electrical neutrality, Chloride
(Cl- ) enters the erythrocytes.
This is called chloride shift.
20.
21. In the lungs, oxygenation of
hemoglobin releases H+ which
combines with bicarbonate to form
carbonic acid by carbonic anhydrase.
Carbonic acid dissociates into water
and CO2.
CO2 is expired out by lungs.
Chloride comes out in exchange for
HCO3
- to maintain electrical
neutrality.
22.
23. pH = pKa + log {bicarbonate (metabolic
component)/ carbonic acid-paCO2
(Respiratory component)}
Respiratory component is maintained by
lungs and Metabolic component is
maintained by kidneys.
Carbonic acid is a volatile acid so it is
eliminated by lungs.
The rate of respiration is controlled by the
chemoreceptors in the respiratory centre
which are sensitive to pH change of blood.
24. Functions
Reabsorption of bicarbonate involves the
reabsorption of bicarbonate filtered without
excretion of H+ ions.
Excretion of H+ ions
Here there is net gain of bicarbonate for each
H+ excretion. As the H+ ion excretion
increases, the excretion of H+ against
concentration gradient becomes difficult.
So in the distal convoluted tubules, urinary
buffers buffer the free H+ ions.
25.
26.
27. Two important urinary buffers are
1. Phosphate buffer
2. Ammonia
The maximum limit of acidification of urine is
4.5.
Normally 70 meq acid is excreted daily. In
metabolic acidosis, this can raise to 400
meq/day.
28.
29.
30. Normal values -Arterial
pH = 7.35 – 7.45
paO2 = 80-100 mm of Hg
paCO2 = 35-45 mm of Hg
HCO3
- = 23-27 mmol/L
Na+ = 135-145 mmol/L
K+ = 3.5-5 mmol/L
Cl- = 96-106 m/L
31. pH: 7.35 – 7.45
PCO2:
Males: 35 – 48 mm Hg
Females: 32 – 45 mm Hg
HCO3: 22 – 27 mEq/L
Base Excess:
Newborn (0 – 7 days): -10 to -2 mmol/L
Infant (1 week – 1 year): -7 to –1 mmol/L
Child (1 – 16 years): -4 to +2 mmol/L
Adult (>16 years): -3 to +3 m
32. Warm the area for 3-10 mins not > than
420C – arterialization - 0.2 ml
Lithium heparin – fill 2 capillary tubes without
air bubble –cap both ends
Within 15 mins – analyze
> 30 mins , clotted sample – discard
Critical values
pCO2: < 15 and > 70 mm Hg
pH: < 7.2 and > 7.6
33. Respiratory acidosis - failure of ventilation
depression of respiratory centre due to disease
or drug-induced respiratory depression, head
injury.
Paralysis of muscles (eg, myasthenia gravis,
muscular dystrophy)
Airway obstruction- foreign body –trachea ,
asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD).
Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
The biochemical findings are:
pH < 7.35
paCO2 > 45 mm of Hg (Hypercapnia).
Renal compensation occurs in 3-5 days. This
increase of bicarbonate is called compensatory
metabolic alkalosis.
34. It is caused by hyperventilation. The causes for
hyperventilation are: Anxiety, salicylate poisoning
, artificial ventilation and pulmonary embolism.
The biochemical findings are
pH is increased > 7.45
paCO2 is decreased < 35 mm of Hg
Bicarbonate is normal in uncompensated
condition.
In compensatory metabolic acidosis, bicarbonate
will be decreased. Kidney responds to decrease in
paCO2 and excretes more bicarbonate.
35. It can be due to 1.Increased acid production
2. Decreased removal of acids by kidneys (renal
failure)
3.loss of bicarbonate
Increased acid production: The causes are
lactic acidosis in shock, septicemia,
ketoacidosis in Von Gierkes’s disease, diabetes
mellitus and starvation.
Loss of bicarbonate due to diarrhoea
(gastroenteritis).
36. The sum of cations and anions in ECF are always equal.
Cations Na+ + K+ - 95% - anions Cl + HCO3
Account for only 86% among the measured electrolytes.
AG represents the plasma anions - not routinely measured
(albumin, phosphates, sulphates, organic anions).
So there is a difference among measured cations and anions.
The unmeasured anions constitute the anion gap.
Anion Gap = [Na+ + K+] – [Cl- + HCO3
-]
= [135 + 4] – [100 + 25]
= 139 – 125 = 14 meq/l. The anion gap ranges between 8-
16 meq/l.
37. Based on anion gap, Metabolic acidosis can be
grouped into : High anion gap metabolic acidosis
and normal anion gap metabolic acidosis.
High anion gap acidosis
It is caused by increased production of
unmeasured anions such as lactate, ketone
bodies.
Normal anion gap acidosis (Hyperchloremic
acidosis): when there is loss of both anion and
cations, normal anion gap acidosis will be there.
The causes are :
Diarrhea, intestinal fistula due to loss of
bicarbonate , Na+, K+.
Renal tubular acidosis
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: loss of HCO3-,
Na+, K+ occurs.
38. ketoacidosis
◦ diabetic, alcoholic, starvation
lactic acidosis
acute renal failure
toxins
renal tubular acidosis
GIT loss of HCO3
◦ diarrhoea
◦ drainage of pancreatic or bile
juice
Na+
Cl-
AG
HCO3
-
normal
anion gap
Na+
Cl-
AG
HCO3
-
physiologic
situation
Na+
Cl-
AG
HCO3
-
high
anion gap
39. There will be deep and rapid respiration called Kussmaul
respiration.
Chest pain, headache, palpitation, altered mental status.
When pH<7.2 and bicarbonate <10 mmol/L , there will be
depressed myocardial contractility.
pH is decreased- < 7.35
HCO3 is decreased- < 24 mmol/l
paCO2 is normal or decreased during compensation.
Compensation by lungs
paCO2 will be reduced by 1 mm of Hg for every 1 mmol of
drop in bicarbonate.
Treatment
Treatment of the cause and administration of
Bicarbonate.
40. pH is increased due to rise in HCO3
-.
It is seen in vomiting (loss of H+ ions), intake
of antacids, in patients consuming more milk
(Milk-alkali syndrome).
Increased loss of acid by kidney:
hyperaldosteronism , Cushing’s syndrome.
Thiazide and loop diuretics
In vomiting, HCl is lost and so bicarbonate
accumulates. Plasma Cl-_ is decreased. This is
called hypochloremic alkalosis.
41. pH is increased > 7.45
HCO3
- > 27 mmol/L
paCO2 is normal if uncompensated and is
increased in case of compensatory respiratory
acidosis. So paCO2 will be increased by
hypoventilation.
In metabolic alkalosis
paCO2 is increased by 1 mm of Hg for every 1
mol/L rise in bicarbonate.