This document details the physiological processes involved in acid-base homeostasis, including the roles of chemical buffers, respiratory regulation, and renal responses in maintaining optimal hydrogen ion concentration for bodily functions. It discusses the importance of pH levels on enzyme activity and cellular excitability, as well as the implications of acidosis and alkalosis in various diseases. The mechanisms by which the body compensates for acid-base imbalances are also outlined, specifically focusing on the immediate buffering systems, respiratory adjustments, and renal regulation over time.

1. ACID - BASE Balance
PHYSIOLOGY

2. ACID BASE HOMEOSTASIS
 Acid-Base homeostasis involves
chemical and physiologic processes
responsible for the maintenance of
the acidity of body fluids at levels
that allow optimal function of the
whole individual
2

3. ACID BASE HOMEOSTASIS
 The chemical processes represent
the first line of defense to an acid or
base load and include the extracellular
and intracellular buffers
 The physiologic processes modulate
acid-base composition by changes in
cellular metabolism and by adaptive
responses in the excretion of volatile
acids by the lungs and fixed acids by
the kidneys
3

4. ACID BASE HOMEOSTASIS
 The need for the existence of
multiple mechanisms involved
in Acid-Base regulation stems
from the critical importance of
the hydrogen ion (H+)
concentration on the operation
of many cellular enzymes and
function of vital organs, most
prominently the brain and the
heart
4

5. ACID BASE HOMEOSTASIS
◦Metabolic pathways
are continuously
consuming or
producing H+
◦The daily load of
waste products for
excretion in the form
of volatile and fixed
acids is substantial
5

6. EFFECTS OF pH
 The most general effect of pH changes
are on enzyme function
◦ Also affect excitability of nerve and
muscle cells
6
pH
pH
Excitability
Excitability

7. ACID-BASE BALANCE
7

8. ACID-BASE BALANCE
 Acid - Base balance is primarily
concerned with two ions:
◦Hydrogen (H+)
◦Bicarbonate (HCO- )
3
8
-
H+ HCO3

9. ACID-BASE BALANCE
 Derangements
of hydrogen and
bicarbonate
concentrations in
body fluids are
common in
disease
processes
9

10. ACID-BASE
BALANCE
H+ ion has
special
significance
because of the
narrow ranges
that it must be
maintained in
order to be
compatible with
living systems
10

11. ACID-BASE BALANCE
 Primarily
controlled by
regulation of
H+ ions in the
body fluids
◦ Especially
extracellular
fluids
11

12. ACID-BASE REGULATION
12

13. ACID-BASE REGULATION
 Maintenance of an acceptable pH range
in the extracellular fluids is
accomplished by three mechanisms:
◦1) Chemical Buffers
React very rapidly
(less than a second)
◦2) Respiratory Regulation
Reacts rapidly (seconds to minutes)
◦3) Renal Regulation
Reacts slowly (minutes to hours)
13

14. ACID-BASE REGULATION
 Chemical Buffers
◦ The body uses pH buffers in the blood to guard
against sudden changes in acidity
◦ A pH buffer works chemically to minimize changes
in the pH of a solution
14
Buffer

15. ACID-BASE REGULATION
 Respiratory Regulation
◦ Carbon dioxide is an important by-product of
metabolism and is constantly produced by cells
◦ The blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs
where it is exhaled
15
Cell
Metabolism
CO2CO2
CO2
CO CO2 2 CO2

16. ACID-BASE REGULATION
 Respiratory Regulation
◦ When breathing is increased,
the blood carbon dioxide level
decreases and the blood
becomes more Base
◦ When breathing is decreased,
the blood carbon dioxide level
increases and the blood becomes more Acidic
◦ By adjusting the speed and depth of breathing,
the respiratory control centers and lungs are able
to regulate the blood pH minute by minute
16

17. ACID-BASE REGULATION
 Kidney Regulation
◦ Excess acid is excreted by
the kidneys, largely in the
form of ammonia
◦ The kidneys have some
ability to alter the amount of
acid or base that is excreted,
but this generally takes
several days
17

18. ACID-BASE REGULATION
 Enzymes, hormones and ion
distribution are all affected by
Hydrogen ion concentrations
18

19. ACIDS
19

20. 20
ACIDS
 Acids can be defined as a proton (H+) donor
 Hydrogen containing substances which dissociate
in solution to release H+
 Many other substance (carbohydrates) also
contain hydrogen but they are not classified as
acids because the hydrogen is tightly bound
within their molecular structure and it is never
liberated as free H+

21. 21
ACIDS
 Physiologically important acids include:
◦Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
◦Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
◦Pyruvic acid (C3H4O3)
◦ Lactic acid (C3H6O3)
 These acids are dissolved in body
fluids
Lactic acid
Pyruvic acid
Phosphoric acid

22. BASES
22

23. BASES
 Bases can be defined as:
◦ A proton (H+) acceptor
◦ Molecules capable of accepting a
hydrogen ion (OH-)
23

24. BASES
 Physiologically important bases
include:
◦Bicarbonate (HCO- )
3
◦Biphosphate (HPO4
-2 )
24
Biphosphate

25. pH SCALE
25

26. pH SCALE
 pH refers to Potential Hydrogen
 Expresses hydrogen ion concentration in
water solutions
 Water ionizes to a limited extent to form
equal amounts of H+ ions and OH- ions
◦H2O H+ + OH-
H+ ion is an acid
OH- ion is a base
26

27. pH SCALE
 Pure water is Neutral
◦ ( H+ = OH- )
 pH = 7
 Acid
◦ ( H+ > OH- )
 pH < 7
 Base
◦ ( H+ < OH- )
 pH > 7
ACIDS, BASES OR NEUTRAL???
OH-OH-OH-OH
H+
H+
 Normal blood pH is 7.35 - 7.45
 pH range compatible with life is 6.8 - 8.0
27
OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-H+
H+
H+
H+
OH- -
H+
H+
OH-OH-OH-H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
1
2
3

28. pH SCALE
 pH = 4 is more acidic than pH = 6
 pH = 4 has 10 times more free H+
concentration than pH = 5 and 100 times
more free H+ concentration than pH = 6
6.8 7.3 7.4 7.5 8.0
28
ACIDOSIS NORMAL ALKALOSIS
DEATH DEATH
Venous
Blood
Arterial
Blood

29. ACIDOSIS / ALKALOSIS
29

30. ACIDOSIS / ALKALOSIS
 An abnormality in one or more of the pH
control mechanisms can cause one of two
major disturbances in Acid-Base balance
◦ Acidosis
◦ Alkalosis
30

31. ACIDOSIS / ALKALOSIS
 Acidosis and alkalosis are not diseases
but rather are the results of a wide
variety of disorders
 The presence of
acidosis or
alkalosis provides
an important clue
to physicians that
a serious
metabolic
problem exists 31

32. ACIDOSIS / ALKALOSIS
32
 Acidosis
◦ A condition in which the blood has too much
acid (or too little base), frequently resulting
in a decrease in blood pH
 Alkalosis
ACID BASE
◦ A condition in which the blood has too much
base (or too little acid), occasionally
resulting in an increase in blood pH
ACID BASE

33. ACIDOSIS / ALKALOSIS
 pH changes have dramatic effects on
normal cell function
◦1) Changes in excitability of nerve
and muscle cells
◦2) Influences enzyme activity
◦3) Influences K+ levels
33

34. CHANGES IN CELL EXCITABILITY
 pH decrease (more acidic) depresses
the central nervous system
◦Can lead to loss of consciousness
 pH increase (more basic) can cause
over-excitability
◦ Tingling sensations, nervousness,
muscle twitches
34

35. INFLUENCES ON ENZYME ACTIVITY
 pH increases or decreases can alter
the shape of the enzyme rendering it
non-functional
 Changes in enzyme structure can
result in accelerated or depressed
metabolic actions within the cell
35

36. INFLUENCES ON K+ LEVELS
 When reabsorbing
Na+ from the
filtrate of the
renal tubules K+
or H+ is secreted
(exchanged)
 Normally K+ is
secreted in much
greater amounts
than H+
36
K+
K+
Na+
H+

37. INFLUENCES ON K+ LEVELS
 If H+ concentrations are high
(acidosis) H+ is secreted in greater
amounts
 This leaves less K+ than usual excreted
 The resultant K+ retention can affect
cardiac function and other systems
37
K+
Na+
H+

38. ACIDOSIS / ALKALOSIS
Normal values of bicarbonate
(arterial)
◦pH = 7.4
◦PCO= 40 mm Hg
2 ◦HCO- = 24 meq/L
3
38

39. RESPONSES TO:
ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS
Mechanisms protect the body
against life-threatening changes in
hydrogen ion concentration
◦1) Buffering Systems in Body
Fluids
◦2) Respiratory Responses
◦3) Renal Responses
◦4) Intracellular Shifts of Ions
39

40. 1) Buffer Systems
2) Respiratory Responses
3) Renal Responses
4) Intracellular Shifts of Ions
40

41. BUFFERS
 Buffering systems provide an
immediate response to fluctuations in
pH
◦1) Phosphate
◦2) Protein
◦3) Bicarbonate Buffer System
41

42. BUFFERS
 A buffer is a combination of chemicals
in solution that resists any significant
change in pH
 Able to bind or release free H+ ions
42

43. 43
BUFFERS
 Chemical buffers are able to react
immediately (within milliseconds)
 Chemical buffers are the first line of
defense for the body for fluctuations in pH

44. PHOSPHATE BUFFER SYSTEM
 1) Phosphate buffer system
Na2HPO4 + H+ NaH2PO4 +
Na+
◦ Most important in the intracellular system
◦ Alternately switches Na+ with H+
Disodium hydrogen phosphate
H+ Na2HPO4 +
+Na+
Click to NaH2PO4
animate
44

45. PHOSPHATE BUFFER SYSTEM
Na2HPO4 + H+ NaH2PO4 +
Na+
 Phosphates are more abundant within the
cell and are rivaled as a buffer in the ICF
by even more abundant protein
45
Na2HPO4
Na2HPO4
Na2HPO4

46. PHOSPHATE BUFFER SYSTEM
 Regulates pH within the cells and the
urine
◦Phosphate concentrations are higher
intracellularly and within the kidney
tubules
◦Too low of a
concentration in
extracellular fluid
to have much
importance as an
ECF buffer system
46
HPO4
-2

47. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 2) Protein Buffer System
◦Behaves as a buffer in both plasma
and cells
◦Hemoglobin is by far the most
important protein buffer
47

48. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
48
 Most important
intracellular buffer
(ICF)
 The most plentiful
buffer of the body

49. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 Proteins are excellent buffers because
they contain both acid and base groups
that can give up or take up H+
 Proteins are extremely abundant in the
cell
 The more limited number of proteins in
the plasma reinforce the bicarbonate
system in the ECF
49

50. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 Hemoglobin buffers H+ from
metabolically produced CO2 in the plasma
only
 As hemoglobin releases O2 it gains a
great affinity for H+
50
Hb
O2
O2
O2 O2

51. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 H+ generated at the tissue level from
the dissociation of H2CO3 produced by
the addition of CO2
 Bound H+ to Hb (Hemoglobin) does
not contribute to the acidity of blood
51
Hb
O2
O2
O2 O2

52. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 As H+Hb picks up O2 from the lungs
the Hb which has a higher affinity for
O2 releases H+ and picks up O2
 Liberated H+ from H2O combines with
HCO3
- H2CO3 CO2
52
-
HCO3
(exhaled)
Hb
O2
H+
O2 O2

53. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 Venous blood is only slightly more
acidic than arterial blood because of
the tremendous buffering capacity of
Hb
 Even in spite of the large volume of H+
generating CO2 carried in venous blood
53

54. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 Proteins can act as a buffer for both
acids and bases
 Protein buffer system works
instantaneously making it the most
powerful in the body
 75% of the body’s buffer capacity is
controlled by protein
◦ Bicarbonate and phosphate buffer
systems require several hours to be
effective
Pr - added H+ + Pr -
54

55. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 Proteins are very large, complex
molecules in comparison to the size
and complexities of acids or bases
 Proteins are surrounded by a multitude
of negative charges on the outside and
numerous positive charges in the
crevices of the molecule
++
+
+
+
55
-
-
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
-
- - - -
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- - - - - - -
-
- - -
-
-
-
-
+
++
+
+
- - --
+
++ +
+ +

56. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
 H+ ions are attracted to and held from
chemical interaction by the negative
charges
++
+
56
-
-
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
-
- - - -
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- - - - - - -
-
- - -
-
-
-
-
+
+
- - --
+
++ +
+ +
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
H+
H H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ +

57. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
OH- ions which are the basis of
alkalosis are attracted by the positive
charges in the crevices of the protein
+
++
+
57
-
-
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
-
- - - -
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- - - - - - -
-
- - -
-
-
-
-
+
- - --
+
++ +
+ +
OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH
OH- -
OH-

58. PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM
+
++
+
58
-
-
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
-
- - - -
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- - - - - - -
-
- - -
-
-
-
-
+
- - --
+
++ +
+
OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-OH-
OH-OH-OH-
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
H+
H H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ +

59. BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
 3) Bicarbonate Buffer System
◦ Predominates in extracellular fluid (ECF)
HCO- + added H+ HCO3
23
HCO3
-
H2CO3
59

60. BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
 This system is most important because
the concentration of both components
can be regulated:
◦Carbonic acid by the respiratory
system
◦ Bicarbonate by the renal system
60

61. BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
61
-
◦ Hydrogen ions generated by metabolism
or by ingestion react with bicarbonate
base to form more carbonic acid
HCO3
-
H2CO3

62. BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
 Equilibrium shifts toward the formation of
acid
◦ Hydrogen ions that are lost (vomiting)
causes carbonic acid to dissociate
yielding replacement H+ and
bicarbonate
H2CO3
H+ HCO3
-
62

63. BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM
Addition of lactic acid
63
Loss of HCl
H+ HCO3
-
CO H2O H2CO3 2+ +
Exercise
Vomiting

64. 64
1) Buffer Systems
2) Respiratory
Responses
3) Renal Responses
4) Intracellular Shifts of Ions

65. RESPIRATORY RESPONSE
 Neurons in the medulla oblongata and
pons constitute the Respiratory
Center
 Stimulation and limitation of
respiratory rates are controlled by the
respiratory center
 Control is
accomplished by
responding to CO2
and H+
concentrations in
the blood
65

66. 66
RESPIRATORY CENTER
Pons
Respiratory centers
Medulla oblongata

67. CHEMOSENSITIVE AREAS
 Chemosensitive areas of the
respiratory center are able to detect
blood concentration levels of CO2 and
H+
 Increases in CO2 and H+ stimulate the
respiratory center
◦ The effect is to raise
67
respiration rates
But the effect
diminishes in
1 - 2 minutes
CO2
CO2
CO2 CO2
CO2 Click to increase CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2 CO2

68. CHEMOSENSITIVE AREAS
68
 The effect of
stimulating the
respiratory centers
by increased CO2
and H+ is weakened
in environmentally
increased CO2 levels
 Symptoms may
persist for several
days

69. 69
CHEMORECEPTORS
 Chemoreceptors are also present in
the carotid and aortic arteries which
respond to changes in partial
pressures of O2 and CO2 or pH
 Increased levels of
CO2 (low pH) or
decreased levels of
O2 stimulate
respiration rates
to increase

70. 70
CHEMORECEPTORS
 Overall compensatory response is:
◦Hyperventilation in response to
increased CO2 or H+ (low pH)
◦Hypoventilation in response to
decreased CO2 or H+ (high pH)

71. RESPIRATORY CONTROL OF pH
cell production of CO2 increases
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
H+ stimulates respiratory center in medulla oblongata
rate and depth of breathing increase
71
CO2 eliminated in lungs
pH rises toward normal
-
H+ acidosis; pH drops

72. 1) Buffer Systems
2) Respiratory Responses
3) Renal
Responses
4) Intracellular Shifts of Ions
72

73. 73
RENAL RESPONSE
 The kidney compensates for Acid -
Base imbalance within 24 hours and is
responsible for long term control
 The kidney in response:
◦To Acidosis
Retains bicarbonate ions and
eliminates hydrogen ions
◦To Alkalosis
Eliminates bicarbonate ions and
retains hydrogen ions

74. ACIDIFICATION OF
URINE BY
EXCRETION OF
AMMONIA
74

75. ACIDIFICATION OF URINE BY EXCRETION OF AMMONIA
75
Capillary Distal Tubule Cells
Tubular urine
to be excreted
NH2
H+
NH3
NH3
WHAT
HAPPENS
NEXT?

76. ACIDIFICATION OF URINE BY EXCRETION OF AMMONIA
NH3
Na
+
76
Capillary Distal Tubule Cells
+ Cl-
Tubular Urine
HCO HCO2-+
3
3 NaCl
NaHCO3
Click Mouse to
Start Animation
NH3Cl-
H+
NH4Cl
Click Mouse to See
Animation Again
Notice the
H+ - Na+
exchange to
maintain
electrical
neutrality
Dissociation of
carbonic acid

77. RESPIRATORY / EXCRETORY
RESPONSE
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
77
Hyperventilation removes
H+ ion concentrations
Hypoventilation increases
H+ ion concentrations
Kidneys eliminate or retain
H+ or bicarbonate ions

78. 1) Buffer Systems
2) Respiratory Responses
3) Renal Responses
4) Intracellular Shifts
of Ions
78

79. 79
HYPERKALEMIA
 Hyperkalemia is generally associated
with acidosis
◦Accompanied by a shift of H+ ions
into cells and K+ ions out of the cell
to maintain electrical neutrality
H+ K+

80. 80
HYPERKALEMIA
 Hyperkalemia is an elevated serum K+
◦H+ ions are buffered in cell by
proteins
 Acidosis may cause Hyperkalemia
and Hyperkalemia may cause
Acidosis
H+ K+

81. 81
HYPOKALEMIA
 Hypokalemia is generally associated
with reciprocal exchanges of H+ and K+
in the opposite direction
◦Associated with alkalosis
 Hypokalemia is a depressed serum K+
H+ K+

82. Acidosis
Compensatory Response Result
Alkalosis
Compensatory Response Result
82
ELECTROLYTE SHIFTS
H+
cell
K+
- H+ buffered intracellularly
- Hyperkalemia
H+
K+
cell
- Tendency to correct alkalosis
- Hypokalemia

84. 84