The document discusses acid-base balance and regulation in the body. It covers:
1. Acids and bases, describing acids as hydrogen ion donors and bases as hydrogen ion acceptors. The body regulates pH through buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys.
2. The two main buffer systems are bicarbonate-carbonic acid and phosphate buffers. Bicarbonate buffers changes caused by acids and bases in extracellular fluid, while phosphate buffers intracellular fluid.
3. The kidneys regulate pH by reabsorbing bicarbonate, secreting hydrogen ions, and excreting acids such as titratable acid and ammonium ions. This maintains acid-base homeostasis.
4
THIS PRESENTATION WILL COVER THE FOLLOWING AREAS
Definitions
Buffer systems
Regulatory systems
Anion Gap and Osmolar gap
Metabolic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis
Respiratory alkalosis
"The body maintains a balance of acids and bases in order to constantly maintain blood pH within a narrow range, despite the continuous generation of metabolic products. In turn, this allows the body to maintain cell enzyme systems in good operation conditions, together with the proper concentration of ionized (active) forms of various electrolytes such as Ca and Mg . This influences the speed of metabolic reactions and trans-membrane transportation systems (pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics)." - Luis Núñez Ochoa, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Unam, Mexico
THIS PRESENTATION WILL COVER THE FOLLOWING AREAS
Definitions
Buffer systems
Regulatory systems
Anion Gap and Osmolar gap
Metabolic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis
Respiratory alkalosis
"The body maintains a balance of acids and bases in order to constantly maintain blood pH within a narrow range, despite the continuous generation of metabolic products. In turn, this allows the body to maintain cell enzyme systems in good operation conditions, together with the proper concentration of ionized (active) forms of various electrolytes such as Ca and Mg . This influences the speed of metabolic reactions and trans-membrane transportation systems (pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics)." - Luis Núñez Ochoa, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Unam, Mexico
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
The state of equilibrium between proton donors and proton acceptors in the buffering system of the blood that is maintained at approximately pH 7.35 to 7.45 under normal conditions in arterial blood.
The state of equilibrium between proton donors and proton acceptors in the buffering system of the blood that is maintained at approximately pH 7.35 to 7.45 under normal conditions in arterial blood.
Buffer is any mechanism that resists changes in pH by converting a strong acid or base to a weak one.
essential details on maintenance of extracellular fluid pH, Especially Blood for normal physiological function of the body and condition associated wit acid base imbalance
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
6. Strong acids
– Release large amount of Hydrogen ions
Weak acids
– Release small amount of Hydrogen ions
Strong bases
– Accept large amount of Hydrogen ions
Weak bases
– Accept small amount of Hydrogen ions
Types of acid and base
7. pH
• pH= -log[H+]
• defined as negative log of H + ion concentration
• If [H+] is high, the solution is acidic pH
• If [H+] is low, the solution is basic or alkaline pH
• Acids are H+ donors.
• Bases are H+ acceptors, or give up OH- in solution.
8. Normal Blood gas Value
– [H+] = 40nEq/L
– pH= 7.40 (7.35-7.45)
– PaCO2 = 40 mm Hg(35-45)
– HCO3 =24 mEq/L (22-26)
10. ACIDS PRODUCED IN THE BODY
1.Carbonic acid (H2CO3): It is the chief acid produced in the body in the
course of oxidation in the cells. Oxidation of C-compounds resulting in
CO2 production.
2.Sulphuric acid (H2SO4): A strong dissociable acid produced during
oxidation of S-containing amino acids, e.g. cysteine/cystine and
methionine
3.Phosphoric acid: Products of metabolism of dietary phosphoproteins,
nucleoproteins, and hydrolysis of phosphoesters
4.Organic acids: Abnormal production and accumulation
of certain intermediary organic acids from
oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins, under
certain circumstances, e.g. pyruvic acid, lactic acid,
acetoacetic acid, β-OH-butyric acid, etc.
12. Composition of Buffer Buffers are of two types:
a. Mixtures of weak acids with their salt with a strong
base or
b. Mixtures of weak bases with their salt with a
strong acid. A few examples are given below:
i. H2CO3/NaHCO3 (Bicarbonate buffer)
(carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate)
ii. CH3COOH/CH3COO Na (Acetate buffer)
(acetic acid and sodium acetate)
iii. Na2HPO4/NaH2PO4 (Phosphate buffer)
13. Types of Chemical Buffers
– Carbonic acid-bicarbonate –
Buffering changes caused by organic and fixed acids
– Protein buffer system-Amino acids
– Minor buffering system-
– Phosphate –Buffer pH in the ICF
15. Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffering System
Common extracellular buffer
• base constituent, bicarbonate (HCO3 –),is regulated by
the kidney (metabolic component).
• carbonic acid (H2CO3), is under respiratory regulation
(respiratory component).
17. Bicarbonate
buffer-
Has the following limitations:
– Only functions when respiratory system and
control centers are working normally
–It is limited by availability of bicarbonate
ions (bicarbonate reserve).
18. Phosphate Buffer System
• Common intracellular buffer
• The phosphate buffer system is found to be effective at a
wide pH range, because it has more than one ionizable
group and the pKa values are different for both.
20. Proteins are made up of amino acids
Amino acids have a central carbon with four
groups off of it:
1.a carboxyl group (COOH)
2.an amino group (NH2)
3.a hydrogen atom
4.an R group
.
Protein buffer system
22. Contd..
.
At neutral pH the carboxyl ion is present as
COO instead of COOH.
Acidic medium – becomes COOH
Basic medium – becomes COO.
23. Contd…
Amino group is attached to the amino acid
central carbon: C - NH2.
Neutral pH, the amino group is actually-
NH + rather than just NH .3 2
Acidic medium – becomes NH3+
Basic medium- becomes NH2
25. Hemoglobin as buffer
• physiological buffering action of Hb is due to the
“imidazole” group of amino acid “histidine”
• Imidazole N2 group, which can give up H+ (proton) and
accept H+ depending on the pH of the medium.
29. Respiratory regulation
Contd…
Pulmonary expiration of CO2 balances metabolic
formation of CO2
– 1.2 mol/L of dissolved CO2 is present in the ECF
corresponding to pCO2 of 40mm/hg
– Rate of pulmonary ventilation is
inversely proportional to CO2 & pCO2
– So either pulmonary ventilation rate of CO2
– or its formation by tissues can change pCO2
in ECF.
30. Contd…
Increasing alveolar ventilation decreases ECF
hydrogen ion conc. And raises pH
– If alveolar ventilation increases the pCO2 decreases.
– If alveolar ventilation decreases the
pCO2 increases.
– Twice rise of AV--rises pH of ECF by about 0.23
– Decrease of AV to ¼ -- decreases pH by 0.45
31. Contd…
Increased Hydrogen ion conc. Stimulates
alveolar ventilation
Change in alveolar ventilation rate is much
greater in reduced levels of pH than in
increased levels of pH
32. Hydrogen ion conc.
By RS
H conc. Falls below normal
Respiration is depressed
Alveolar ventilation decreases
H increases back to normal
33.
34.
35.
36. pH of urine is normally acidic(6). This indicates that
the kidneys have contributed to the acidification of
Urine
Kidney is responsible for excreting fixed acids
H+ ions generated in the body in normal
circumstances are eliminated by acidified urine
pH range of urine is between 4.4 -9.5 depending on
the concentration n of H+ ions i the blood
37. Renal mechanism of acid-
base regulation
Kidneys regulate the blood pH by
A. Excretion of H+ ions
B. Reabsorption of bicarbonate (recovery of
bicarbonate)
C. Excretion of titratable acid (net acid excretion)
D. Excretion of NH4+
38.
39. Excretion of H+; Generation of Bicarbonate
i. This process occurs in the proximal convoluted
tubules
ii. The CO2 combines with water to form carbonic
acid, with the help of carbonic anhydrase. The H2CO3 then
ionizes to H+ and bicarbonate.
iii. The hydrogen ions are secreted into the tubular lumen; in
exchange for Na+ reabsorbed.
These Na+ ions along with HCO3– will be reabsorbed into the
blood.
iv. There is net excretion of hydrogen ions, and net generation of
bicarbonate. So this mechanism serves to increase the alkali
reserve.
40.
41. Reabsorption of Bicarbonate
In PCT due to presence Na+/H+ exchanger, H+ is secreted to the
luminal fluid in exchange Na+ is reabsorbed into blood
The hydrogen ions secreted into the luminal fluid is required for
the reabsorption of filtered bicarbonate.
Bicarbonate filtered through glomerulus is mostly reabsorbed in
PCT by this mechanism
The bicarbonate combines with H+ in tubular fluid to form
carbonic acid. It dissociates into water and CO2. The CO2 diffuses
into the cell, which again combines with water to form carbonic
acid.
In the cell, it again ionizes to H+ that is secreted into lumen in
exchange for Na+. The HCO3– is reabsorbed into plasma along
with Na+.
there is no net excretion of H+ or generation of new bicarbonate.
42.
43. Excretion of H+ as Titratable Acid
In the distal convoluted tubules net acid excretion occurs. Hydrogen
ions are secreted by the distal tubules and collecting ducts by hydrogen
ion-ATPase located in the apical cell membrane.
The hydrogen ions are generated in the tubular cell by a reaction
catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase. The bicarbonate generated
within the cell passes into plasma.
The term titratable acidity of urine refers to the number of milliliters
of N/10 NaOH required to titrate 1 liter of urine to pH 7.4. This is a
measure of net acid excretion by the kidney.
The major titratable acid present in the urine is sodium acid
phosphate.
44.
45. Excretion of Ammonium Ions
Predominantly occurs at the distal convoluted tubules. This
would help to excrete H+ and reabsorb HCO3–
The Glutaminase present in the tubular cells can hydrolyze
glutamine to NH3 and glutamic acid. The NH3 (ammonia)
diffuses into the luminal fluid and combines with H+ to form
NH4+(ammonium ion).
Binding of H+ to NH3 will resist the decrease of pH of urine
52. • Respiratory acidosis (excess of
H2CO3)
• Metabolic Acidosis( decrease in
HCO3- or increased acid production)Acidosis
• Respiratory Alkalosis( decrease in
H2CO3)
• Metabolic Alkalosis( Increase in
bicarbonate)
Alkalosis
Respiratory acid-base disorders are initiated by an increase or
decrease in partial pressure of carbondioxide(pCO2) whereas
metabolic disorders are initiated by an increase or decrease in
bicarbonate ion(HCO3-)
54. Compensatory Mechanism In Acid –base disorder
•If underlying problem is metabolic, hyperventilation or hypoventilation can
help: Respiratory Compensation
•If Problem is Respiratory, Renal mechanism can retain or excrete bicarbonate
and bring about metabolic compensation
55. Respiratory acidosis
primary excess of carbonic acid is the cardinal feature
It is due to CO2 retention as a result of hypoventilation
HCO3-/H2CO3 <20
Causes: (DEPRESS)
D- Drugs(opioids, sedatives)Diseases of neuromuscular
system
E-Edema( pulmonary)
P- Pneumonia
R-Respiratory centre of brain damaged(brain injury, stroke)
E-Emboli( blocking pulmonary artery)
S-Spasms of bronchial tubes( asthma)
S-Sac(Alveolar) elasticity damaged( Emphysema, COPD)
56.
57. Compensation of respiratory acidosis
Carbonic acid is buffered by blood buffers
Kidney excretes more H+ and reabsorbs HCO3-
Hyperventilation
58. Respiratory Alkalosis
A primary deficit of carbonic acid is described as
the respiratory alkalosis.
Hyperventilation will result in washing out of CO2
HCO3-/H2CO3 >20:1
Causes:
High altitude
Hysteria
Febrile conditions
61. Anion Gap
The sum of cations and anions in ECF is always equal, so
as to maintain the electrical neutrality.
Sodium and potassium together account for 95% of the
cations whereas chloride and bicarbonate account for
only 86% of the anions.
Only these electrolytes are commonly measured in
laboratory.
Hence there is always a difference between the measured
cations and the anions.
The unmeasured anions constitute the anion gap.
Unmeasured anion are protein anions,sulphate,
phosphate and organic acids.
64. If an acid is added to blood
Anion H+ Na+ HCO3
-+
Na
Cl H CO3 UnHCO3
65. Na
Cl HCO3 Un
Cl- Other Anion
Normal Anion gap
Metabolic Acidosis
(Hyperchloremic)
High Anion gap
Metabolic Acidosis
66.
67. High anion Vs Normal anion gap acidosis
High anion gap metabolic acidosis: It is due to
over production of acids that contributes anion and
uses bicarbonate. For example production of lactic
acid contributes lactate ion and H+. H+ binds
with bicarbonate. As a result there is increase in
unmeasured anion( lactate) and bicarbonate
decreases and finally results in high anion gap
metabolic acidosis.
Normal anion gap metabolic acidosis: a loss of
both anions and cations,the anion gap is normal,
but acidosis may prevail.
Eg; Diarrhea ( loss of HCO3-, Na+ and K+)
Hyperchloremic acidosis may occur in renal
tubular acidosis(Renal tubular acidosis)
68.
69. UNa+ + UK+ + Unmeasured cations = UCl- + Unmeasured anions
Or, Unmeasured anions – Unmeasured cations = (UNa+ + UK+) - UCl-
Urine Anion Gap (UAG) = (UNa+ + UK+) -UCl-
- NH + is the primary unmeasured cation which is not balanced by anions.
4
- UAG as indirect assay for renal NH4+ excretion
Na K
+
NH4
Cl
The normal value is –20 to –50 mmol/L.
72. Causes of Normal Anion gap metabolic acidosis
Diarrhea ( loss of HCO3- and Na+ and K+)
Renal tubular acidosis
Proximal RTA( Type II)
Distal RTA( Type I)
Type IV( decrease aldosterone)
In all of the causes above there is loss of HCO3- with
compensatory reabsorption of Chloride.
Therefore not changing anion gap.
73.
74.
75. Metabolic Alkalosis
Primary excess of bicarbonate is the characteristic
feature. Alkalosis occurs when
a) excess base is added, b) base excretion is defective or
c) acid is lost.
Increased HCO3-/H2CO3 > 20:1
80. Arterial Blood Gas(ABG) Analysis
The assessment of acid-base status is usually done by
the arterial blood gas (ABG) analyzer
Radial artery is commonly chosen
Parameters of ABG analysis
Normal ABG Values
pH : 7.35-7.45
PaCO2 : 35-45 mmHg.
HCO3 : 22-26 mEq/L
PaO2 : 70-100 mmHg.
SaO2 : 93-98%
81. Other Parameters with ABG
Measurement of Electrolytes(Na, K, Cl)and
calculation of Anion gap along with ABG analysis
helps in knowing the Acid- base status and the causes.
83. Is there any (if any) compensation
occurring?
No compensation: pH remains abnormal, and the ‘other’ value
(where the problem isn’t occurring, i.e. PCO2 or HCO3- ) will remain
normal or has made no attempt to help normalise the pH. For
example: in uncompensated metabolic acidosis: pH =7.23, HCO3-
6 15mmol/L, and the PCO2 will be normal at 40mmHg.
Partial compensation :pH is still abnormal, and the ‘other’ value is
abnormal in an attempt to help normalise the pH. For example: in
partially compensated respiratory alkalosis: pH =7.62, PCO2 =27
and the HCO3- will be abnormal at 17mmol/L
Full compensation: The pH is normal, as the ‘other’ value is
abnormal and has been successful in normalising the pH. For
example: Fully compensated metabolic acidosis pH= 7.38, HCO3-
=15mmol/L and the CO2 =30mmHg
86. Example
• A patient is in intensive care because he suffered
a severe myocardial infarction 3 days ago. The
lab reports the following values from an arterial
blood sample:
– pH 7.3
– HCO3- = 20 mEq / L ( 22 - 26)
– pCO2 = 32 mm Hg (35 - 45)
Diagnosis
• Metabolic acidosis
• With partial compensation
52
87. CASE 1
• A 44 year old moderately dehydrated man
was admitted with a two day history of acute
severe diarrhea. Electrolyte results: Na+ 134,
K+ 2.9, Cl- 108, HCO3- 16,
• Urea 31, Cr 1.5.
•
ABG: pH =7.31 pCO2- 33 mmHg
HCO3 =16 pO2-93 mmHg
53
88. CASE 2
•
•
•
A 22 year old female with type I DM, presents to the
emergency department with a 1 day history of nausea,
vomiting, polyuria, polydypsia and vague abdominal pain.
Labs: Na 132 , K 6.0, Cl 93, HCO3- 11 glucose 720, Urea 38,
Cr 2.6.
UA: pH 5, SG 1.010, ketones negative, glucose positive .
Plasma ketones trace.
ABG: pH- 7.27 HCO3- 10 PCO2 -23
What is the acid base disorder?
54
89. CASE 3
• A 70 year old man
with history of CHF
presents with
increased shortness
of breath and leg
swelling.
ABG: pH 7.24, PCO2
60 mmHg, PO2 52
HCO3- 27
• What is the acid
base disorder? 55