Unit 16 Carbon Chemistry
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The document discusses organic chemistry concepts, including: - Organic compounds contain carbon and are found in living and once-living organisms. Carbon can form up to four covalent bonds, allowing for complex molecules. - Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, made of only carbon and hydrogen. They have properties like low melting/boiling points and flammability. - Hydrocarbons can be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated hydrocarbons have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms, while unsaturated ones have double or triple bonds. - Structural formulas show how atoms are arranged in molecules, important for understanding isomers that have the same molecular formula but different structures.
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This ppt was made for our stupid projects..... The main purpose behind uploading this ppt is that no one should suffer like us and waste their time behind these stupid things... concentrate on your studies..
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This compound is 2-methylbut-1-yne.
The parent chain is a 4-carbon chain containing the triple bond. Following IUPAC nomenclature rules for alkynes:
1) The parent name is butyne since it is a 4-carbon chain with the triple bond.
2) The carbon atoms of the triple bond get the lowest possible numbers, which is 1.
3) There is a methyl substituent (CH3 group) attached to the #2 carbon.
4) Substituents are named as prefixes and their locations denoted by a number.
Therefore, the full IUPAC name for this unsaturated hydrocarbon is 2-methylbut-1
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Chapter 2 Carbon Compounds
The document discusses carbon compounds, specifically hydrocarbons and their properties. It describes how hydrocarbons can be saturated (alkanes) or unsaturated (alkenes) based on the presence of single or double/triple carbon bonds. Alkanes and alkenes are the two main types of hydrocarbons. The document provides naming conventions and structures of alkanes and alkenes with different numbers of carbon atoms. It also discusses the physical and chemical properties of these compounds, including combustion reactions and addition reactions unique to alkenes. Isomerism, which results in different structural formulas but the same molecular formula, is also introduced.
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This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and benzene. It discusses key topics such as:
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This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry. It discusses the key topics of functional groups, organic synthesis reagents, organic structure and reactions, elements involved in organic chemistry, and oxidation and reduction reactions. The main points are that organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds and their properties and reactions, it is essential to life processes, and the carbon atom can form many different bonds giving rise to a huge variety of organic molecules and isomers.
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This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry. It discusses the basic components and structures of organic molecules, including hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. It explains that organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds and their properties and reactions. Carbon can form many different structures by bonding to itself and other elements, resulting in a huge number and variety of possible organic compounds.
Carbon compound
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igcse-organic-chemistry.pdf
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Organic Chemistry
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Carbon and its compounds
* CARBON is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group IV on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds.
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* Graphite
* Diamond
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L.05 carbon and its compounds gr 10, 2019-20
1. Carbon exists in Earth's crust and atmosphere and forms millions of compounds due to its ability to catenate and be tetravalent. Organic chemistry studies carbon compounds except oxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates.
2. Berzelius proposed that organic compounds could only be synthesized in living organisms, but Wohler synthesized urea in the laboratory in 1828, disproving this vital force theory.
3. Carbon forms covalent bonds by sharing electrons in stable octet configurations, allowing it to form diverse chains, rings, and functional groups that exhibit properties ranging from nonpolar to ionic.
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C15 hydrocarbons
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Chapter 2 carbon compound notes
This document summarizes key concepts about carbon compounds and organic chemistry. It discusses the classification of carbon compounds as organic or inorganic, and the properties and examples of important organic compound classes like hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and esters. It also covers isomerism, naming conventions, characteristic reactions, and industrial production methods for compounds like ethanol.
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This document discusses organic chemistry and hydrocarbons. It provides characteristics of hydrocarbons, including that they have non-polar molecules, sp3 hybridization, and contain only carbon and hydrogen. It also discusses vocabulary for naming alkanes based on the number of carbon atoms. Alkanes are characterized as saturated hydrocarbons where each carbon atom forms four bonds. Examples of alkanes like methane, ethane, and propane are provided along with their chemical structures. The concept of isomers, which are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures, is introduced with examples like butane and isobutane.
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Students will collect data on leaf color changes in Washington to determine when peak color occurs in different locations and under various conditions. They will record the town, date of peak color, elevation, and any weather events. After analyzing the compiled class data, students will develop a hypothesis about factors influencing color change and email a summary. Finally, they will design an experiment to test their hypothesis in future years.
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This document summarizes research on the habitat use and roosting preferences of long-legged myotis bats in Pacific Northwest forests. The researcher captured bats at caves and water sources, attached radio transmitters, and tracked them to their daytime roosts, finding that they used trees not caves. Analysis showed the bats preferred late-successional forests with large grand fir snags for roosting. The researcher concludes forest management should leave snags and some late-successional forest patches for bat species like the long-legged myotis.
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How do sedimentary rocks form?
Let's travel through the canyon country of Utah and Arizona to find out.
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Learn about Sky Islands and the challenges trees and plants face at high elevations. Snow, wind, cold, aridity, UV light all impact treeline, as well as, provide opportunities for forests to grow in an otherwise desert landscape.
The Azolla Event
- Around 50 million years ago, the Arctic region was a warm temperate forest rather than today's frozen landscape. This was due to much higher CO2 levels during a period known as the Eocene hothouse.
- A tiny aquatic fern called Azolla that grew in the Arctic's freshwater lakes and rivers is theorized to have caused global cooling. Azolla absorbed large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere, eventually storing it in peat deposits on the lake and sea floors.
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Unit 10 natural selection
The document discusses key concepts and evidence related to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes how Darwin observed adaptations in species on the Galapagos Islands and how this insight, combined with evidence from fossils, biogeography, embryology and anatomy, led him to propose natural selection as the mechanism of evolution. Natural selection acts on inherited variation in traits, with those conferring greater fitness being passed on to more offspring over generations of descent with modification.
Unit 11 evolution of populations
Paleontology, genetics, and molecular evidence all support evolution through fossils, DNA and protein comparisons. Genetic variation within populations increases the chances of survival and comes from mutation, recombination and hybridization. Natural selection can act on populations in three ways - directional selection favors one phenotype extreme, stabilizing selection favors intermediate phenotypes, and disruptive selection favors both extremes.
The facts about plastic bags
Between 500 billion and 1 trillion plastic bags are consumed worldwide each year, with less than 1% being recycled. It costs more to recycle a bag than to produce a new one. Plastic bags end up polluting oceans and landscapes, harming wildlife that ingest them. Over 200 species are known to die from plastic bag ingestion or entanglement. Banning plastic bags, using reusable bags, and implementing bag taxes or fees have helped reduce plastic bag consumption in many countries around the world.
Unit 17a Scientific Classification
The document discusses taxonomy and classification systems. It describes how Linnaeus developed the scientific naming system still used today. Modern classification is based on evolutionary relationships and uses evidence from living species, fossils, and molecular data. Cladistics is a common method to classify organisms based on shared ancestry, placing species in evolutionary trees based on which share a more recent common ancestor.
Unit 18a DNA fingerprinting and genetic engineering
DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals at the molecular level based on noncoding regions of DNA that contain repeating sequences. The number of repeats differs between people and can be used to identify individuals or determine relationships through gel electrophoresis. DNA fingerprinting is used for evidence in criminal cases, paternity tests, immigration requests, and studying biodiversity. Cloning produces genetically identical copies of organisms through techniques like nuclear transfer in mammals. Cloning has potential benefits like organ transplants and saving endangered species but also raises concerns about health, biodiversity, and success rates. Genetic engineering modifies organisms' DNA to give them new traits using recombinant DNA techniques. Transgenic organisms with genes from other species are used in research and agriculture but also provoke concerns about
Unit 17b Domains and kingdoms
Molecular clocks use mutation rates in DNA to estimate evolutionary time between species. Different molecules, like mitochondrial DNA and ribosomal RNA, mutate at different rates and are useful for studying closely or distantly related species. As scientific understanding advanced, the classification of life changed from two kingdoms to the current three domain system of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Unit 17a Scientific classification
The document discusses taxonomy and classification systems. It describes how Linnaeus developed the scientific naming system still used today. Modern classification is based on evolutionary relationships and uses evidence from living species, fossils, and molecular data. Cladistics is a common method to classify organisms based on shared ancestry, placing species in evolutionary trees based on which share a more recent common ancestor.
Unit 16b Biodiversity and conservation
The growing human population threatens biodiversity by causing habitat loss and fragmentation. This leads to the extinction of species and loss of ecosystem stability. Habitat corridors provide a solution by allowing species to access different habitat areas. Invasive species also disrupt ecosystems by pushing out native species. Conservation methods aim to protect biodiversity through sustainable development, legislation, and the management of public lands and natural resources.
Unit 16a Resource consumption pollution and greenhouse effect
As the human population grows, demand for Earth's resources increases and puts pressure on renewable and nonrenewable resources. Technological advances have helped increase Earth's carrying capacity by supporting agriculture and medicine. However, fossil fuel emissions contribute to pollution and climate change, affecting the biosphere. Air pollution from fossil fuels can harm human health and the environment through effects like smog, acid rain, and the greenhouse effect. Pollution also threatens freshwater ecosystems and enters the food chain through biomagnification.
Unit 15b Biosphere climate and biomes
The document discusses the biosphere and climate. The biosphere includes all ecosystems and living things on Earth. Climate is the long-term weather patterns of a region, determined by factors like temperature, sunlight, and wind. Earth has six major biomes defined by climate, including tropical rainforests, grasslands, deserts, temperate forests, taiga, and tundra.
Unit 15a Habitat niche interactions and growth patterns
Organisms interact through competition for resources and through symbiotic relationships. Competition occurs when multiple species require the same limited resources and can lead to competitive exclusion of one species. Symbiotic relationships include mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism, where species interact and one benefits while the other is helped or harmed. Population growth is determined by immigration, birth, emigration, and death rates, and is typically limited by resource availability through factors like predation, disease, and competition.
Unit 14b Food webs and cycling of matter
Producers like plants provide energy for other organisms. They get energy from non-living resources through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis and include plants, algae, and bacteria. Consumers like herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores get energy by eating producers or other consumers and include deer, hawks, and humans. Food chains show a single path of energy transfer from producer to consumer while food webs show complex feeding relationships in an ecosystem. Matter like water, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus cycle through ecosystems as they move between living and nonliving components.
Unit 14a Relationships, biotic, and abiotic factors
Ecology is the study of interactions between living things and their environment across different levels of organization. These levels from largest to smallest are biome, ecosystem, community, population, and organism. Ecologists use observation, experimentation, and modeling to understand these interactions. Field experiments provide a more accurate picture of natural interactions but make it difficult to determine cause and effect.
Unit 13b Origin of life
The document discusses several hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth, including:
- The nebula hypothesis that the solar system formed from a condensing cloud of gas and debris.
- Experiments showing amino acids can form from simple gases through processes like Miller-Urey.
- Early cells may have formed within iron-sulfide bubble compartments or from lipid membranes enclosing organic molecules.
- Endosymbiosis, where cellular structures like mitochondria and chloroplasts developed from internalized bacteria, may explain the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Unit 13a Fossil record and geologic time scale
The document discusses how fossils form and how their ages are determined. It explains that fossils only form under specific conditions, such as rapid burial. Relative dating compares fossil placement in rock layers, while radiometric dating measures radioactive decay to estimate ages. The geologic time scale organizes Earth's history into eras and periods lasting tens to hundreds of millions of years each. Determining fossil ages relies on methods like relative dating, radiometric techniques, and analyzing placement near index fossils.
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Unit 16 Carbon Chemistry
- 2. Organic Compounds Organic compounds are those compounds found in any organism that is living or was once living containing carbon. -- compounds lacking carbon and not from living organisms referred to as “inorganic”
- 3. Organic Compounds Organic compounds are those compounds found in any organism that is living or was once living containing carbon.
- 4. Carbon – The Element of Life Carbon’s unique atomic structure allows it to covalently bond with up to four other atoms -- carbon is the simplest element on the periodic table that also has four valence electrons Drawing of carbon and it’s bonding ability:
- 6. Properties of Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, made up of only two elements -- they have low melting and boiling points. -- hydrocarbons are flammable -- hydrocarbons are nonpolar and mix poorly with water—think, oil and water. -- hydrocarbons are used for many of our fuels Methane Propane Diesel
- 7. Properties of Hydrocarbons -- Liquid hydrocarbons do not burn, only in the vapor form -- The longer the chain, the most likely to remain a liquid/solid -- Methane = gas -- Propane = liquid under pressure, gas in air -- Butane = high volatile liquid -- Gasoline = volatile liquid -- Diesel = non-volatile liquid -- paraffin = solid
- 8. Saturated There are two kinds of hydrocarbons, saturated and unsaturated Saturated hydrocarbons – hold the maximum number of hydrogen atoms as possible (each carbon is bonded to four different atoms) -- there are NO DOUBLE BONDS in a saturatedhydrocarbon
- 9. Unsaturated Unsaturated hydrocarbons – hold less than the maximum number of hydrogen atoms (some carbons are only bonded to two or three different atoms) -- there are one or more double or triple bonds in an unsaturated hydrocarbon
- 10. From Unsaturated to Saturated The fewer the double bonds, the more solid the fat/oil is at room temperature.
- 12. Structural Formulas When we write a simple chemical formula, such as CH4, we are actually writing what we call a molecular formula Molecular Formulas – show the atoms and the number of atoms involved in a molecule but nothing else In organic chemistry, it is often more useful to show structural formulas instead Structural Formulas – show each type of atom and how they are arranged in a molecule CH4 H – C – H Molecular Formula Structural Formula 3-D Structure H H
- 13. Isomers Structural formulas are important in organic chemistry because of isomers Isomers are two compounds with the SAME MOLECULAR formulas but different structural formulas -- they have different chemical and physical properties methoxyethane C3H8O propan-1-ol propan-2-ol methoxyethane (n-propyl alcohol) (isopropyl alcohol)
- 14. The names of the simplest hydrocarbons: HydrocarbonMolecular Formula Methane (Natural Gas) CH4 Ethane C2H6 Propane C3H8 Butane (Lighter fluid) C4H10 Pentane C5H12 Hexane C6H14 Octane(Gasoline) C8H18 Decane C10H22 DodecaneC12H26 Heating Oil C14-C20 Paraffin Wax C25H52 Crude Oil C20-C50
- 15. Hydrocarbons The alkenes have a double bond between at least two carbons. These are all unsaturated.
- 16. Hydrocarbons The alkynes have a triple bond between at least two carbons. These are all unsaturated and highly reactive.
- 17. Functional Groups Alcohols Esters Benzene Amide Ether Aldehyde Ketone
- 18. Functional groups-are bound to the carbon and gives the compound some sort of property. For Example: Esters allhave a sour taste and strong odor. Ethyl acetate Nail Polish Remover
- 19. Because of their strong odors, esters are used in industry as artificial flavors and/or odors for things like gum, candy, soda, candles, soaps, and perfumes. Prop-2-enyl hexanoate Pineapple Isoamyl acetate Banana Isobutyl acetate Cherry Methyl cinnamate Strawberry Ethyl valerate Apple Ethyl cinnamate Cinnamon Ethyl lactate Butter