This document summarizes key concepts about carbon compounds and organic chemistry. It discusses the classification of carbon compounds as organic or inorganic, and the properties and examples of important organic compound classes like hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and esters. It also covers isomerism, naming conventions, characteristic reactions, and industrial production methods for compounds like ethanol.

1. CHAPTER 2:
CARBON COMPOUNDS

2. A: CARBON COMPOUNDS
-are compounds that contain Carbon as one of
their constituent elements

3. Carbon Compound
Organic Compound
Inorganic Compound
-Carbon containing compounds
except oxides of carbon, carbonates,
syanides and metallic carbides
-non-carbon
containing
compounds
Hydrocarbon
Non-hydrocarbon
-contain Carbon and
Hydrogen only
-contain C,H and
O,N,P,S,F,Cl,Br,I
Alkanes
Alkenes
(saturated
hydrocarbons)
(unsaturated
hydrocarbons)
-contain only single
bond
-contain at least one
multiple bond
Alcohols
Esters
Carboxylic
acids

4. Inorganic Carbon
compound
Organic compound
Similarity
Both contain carbon atoms
Diffenrences
Protein, fats, cellulose, natural
rubber, petroleum
Examples
Carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide
Formed from living thing
Origin
Formed from minerals
Effect of heat
Have high boiling points and
high melting point
Have low boiling points and
low melting point
Dissolve in organic solvents
such as ether, petrol, alcohol
and chloroform
Solubility
Dissolve in inorganic solvents
such as ether, water, acids and
alkalis

5. Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic compound that
contain only Carbon and Hydrogen
Natural sources of hydrocarbons:
• Petroleum
• Coal
• Natural gas
• Rubber trees

6. B: ALKANES
: CnH2n+2 , n=1,2,3…
General Formula
Naming alkanes:
Number
of
Carbon
atoms
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Root
name
Meth-
Eth-
Prop-
But-
Pent-
Hex-
Hept-
Oct-
Non-
Dec-
Final
name
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane

7. Structural Formula shows how the atoms in a
molecule are bonded together and by what types
of bonds
Example :
Ethane
C2H6
molecular formula
structural formula

8. Cannot
conduct
electricity
Less dense
than water
dissolve in
organic
solvents
Insoluble in
water
Physical
properties
of alkanes
Low melting
and boiling
points-
because the molecules are held
together by weak intermolecular
forces which can be overcome by
small amount of energy

9. Chemical properties of alkanes
a) Combustion
1. Complete combustion
Alkanes burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water
CH4 (g) + 2O2(g)
CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
More soot is given off when a higher alkane is burnt.
For example, the burning of heptane produce more
soot than the burning of ethane
2. Incomplete combustion
If insufficient oxygen available, carbon monoxide or even
carbon may be formed
2CH4 (g) + 3O2(g)
2CO (g) + 4H2O(l)
CH4 (g) + O2(g)
C (s) + 2H2O(l)

10. b) Halogenation
-Reaction of alkanes with halogens.
-readily takes place in sunlight (not occur in the dark)
-carbon-hydrogen bonds are broken and new
carbon-halogens bonds are formed
-is a substitution reaction
occurs when one atom or a group of atoms in a
molecule is replaced by another atom or group of
atoms

11. -Example:
•
when a mixture of CH4 and chlorine is exposed to
ultraviolet light, 4 different products are formed
CH4 (g) + Cl2(g)
CH3Cl (g) + HCl(l)
Chloromethane
hydrogen chloride

13. C: ALKENES
is a hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double
bond
General Formula
:
CnH2n , n=2,3,4…
Naming alkenes:
Number 2
of
Carbon
atoms
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Root
name
Eth-
Prop-
But-
Pent-
Hex-
Hept-
Oct-
Non-
Dec-
Final
name
Ethene
Propene
But-1-ene
Pent-1-ene
Hex-1-ene
Hept-1-ene
Oct-1-ene
Non-1-ene
Dec-1-ene

14. Structural formula of alkenes
Ethene:
Propene :
C2H4
C3H6

15. Low melting
and boiling
point
Cannot conduct
electricity at
any state
Less dense than
water
Physical
properties
of alkenes
Soluble in
organic
solvents
Insoluble in
water

16. (a)Combustion
reaction
(c)
Polymerization
reaction
Chemical
properties
of alkenes
(b)Addition
reaction
(i)Addition of hydrogen
(ii)Addition of halogens(halogenation)
(iii) Addition of hydrogen halides
(HCl, HBr, HI)
(iv) Addition of water (hydration)
(v) Addition of hydroxyl groups

17. Chemical properties of alkenes
a) Combustion reaction
Alkenes burn in excess oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water
C2H4 (g) + 3O2(g)
2CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
Alkenes burn with sootier flames as compared to
alkanes because alkenes have a higher percentage
of carbon in their molecules than alkanes

18. b) Addition reaction
(i) Addition of hydrogen
This process is called catalytic hydrogenation

19. (ii) Addition of halogens (halogenation)
Observation: reddish-brown bomine is decolourised
and colourless liquid is formed
This reaction is used as a test for the presence of
a carbon-carbon double bond in organic molecules

20. (iii) Addition of hydrogen halides(HCl, HBr, HI)

21. • (iv) Addition of water (hydration)

22. (v) Addition of hydroxyl groups
Observation: purple solution of potassium
manganate (VII) is decolourized

23. c) Poymerization reaction

24. Homologous Series
A group or family of organic compounds that has the following
characteristics:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Members of the series can be represented by a general formula
Successive members differ from each other by –CH2
Members can be prepared by similar methods
Physical properties change regularly with increasing number of
carbon atoms
Members have similar chemical properties because they have the
same functional group
functional group :
-a special group of atoms attached to an organic mlecule
-determines the chemical properties of the molecule
-chemical reactions occur at the functional group

25. 5 homologous series learnt in this
chapter:
Homologous
series
General formula
Functional Group
Alkane
CnH2n+2 , n=1,2,3…
Carbon-carbon single
bond, C-C
Alkene
CnH2n , n=2,3,4…
Carbon-carbon double
bond, C=C
Alcohol
CnH2n+1OH ,n=1,2,3…
Hydroxyl group, -OH
Carboxylic Acid
CnH2n+1 COOH ,n=0,1,2,…
Carboxyl group, -COOH
Ester
CnH2n+1 COOCmH2m+1,
n=0,1,2,…
m=1,2,3…
Carboxylate group, -COO-

26. Descending
homologous series
First member
Second member
Third member
…..
…..
…..
As the number of
carbon atoms per
molecule increases:
•Melting point
increases
•Boiling point increases
•Volatility decreases
•Density increases

27. D: ISOMERISM
Isomerism is a phenomenon whereby 2 or more
molecules are found to have same molecular
formula but different structural formula
Isomers: molecules with the same molecular
formula but with different structural
formula

28. • Example:
C4H10

29. Steps to draw structural formula of isomers of
alkanes
Draw all the possible straight- chain and branched-chain carbon
skeletons
Place single bonds around every carbon atom. Ensure that each
carbon atom has 4 bonds
Place a hydrogen atom at each of the single bonds

30. Steps to draw structural formula of isomers of
alkenes
Draw all the possible carbon skeletons
For each carbon skeleton, place a double bond at different
locations
Place single bonds around each carbon atom. Ensure that each
carbon atom has 4 bonds
Place a hydrogen atom at each of the single bonds

31. How to name isomers?
Prefix
Denotes the
number and
identity of attached
branches
Root
Ending
Denotes the
longest carbon
chain
Denotes rhe family
of the organic
compound
Steps to name an alkane:
1
: Find the longest continuous carbon chain in the molecule
2
: Give the name for this longest chain
3
: Number the carbon atoms in this longest chain beginning at the
end nearest to the first branch (alkyl group)
4
: Locate and name the attached alkyl group
5
: Complete the name for the molecule by combining the three
component parts together. Write the name as a single word. Use
hyphens to separate numbers numbers and words, and commas to
separate numbers

32. E: ALCOHOLS
General Formula
: CnH2n+1OH ,n=1,2,3…
Functional Group
: -OH (hydroxyl group)

33. Naming alcohols
(a) straight-chain alcohol
Step 1
Obtain the name of the alkane with
the same number of carbon atoms
as the alcohol
Step 2
Replace the ending –e from the
name of the alkane with -ol
Step 3
A number is placed to in front of the
–ol to indicate which carbon atom
the hydroxyl group is attached to

34. (b) branched-chain alcohol
Step 1
Find the longest continuous carbon chain containing
the hydroxyl group
Step 2
Name the longest chain by substituting the ending –ol
for the –e of the corresponding alkane
Step 3
Number of the carbon atoms in the longest chain
beginning at the end nearer to the hydroxyl group
Step 4
Step 5
Step
6
Identify the position of the hydroxul group by writing
the number of the carbon atom to which it is attached
in front of the ending -ol
Locate and name all attached alkyl group
Complete the name for the alcohol molecule by
combining the 3 component parts together. Write
the name as a single word

35. Industrial production of ethanol
a) Making ethanol by fermentation
C6H12O6 (aq)
2CH3CH2OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
Glucose
Temperature
Catalyst
Other condition
Ethanol
: 18-20 °C
: zymase from yeast
: absence of oxygen

36. b) Making ethanol by hydration
CH2=CH2 (g) + H2O (g)
Ethene
Steam
CH3CH2OH (g)
Ethanol
(From the cracking of
petroleum fractions)
Temperature
Pressure
Catalyst
: 300 °C
: 60 atm
: phosphoric acid

37. Sharp smell
Completely
miscible
with water
Liquid at
room
conditions
Physical
properties of
ethanol
colourless
Highly volatile
(easily change
into a gas)
Low boiling
point

38. Oxidation
Chemical
properties of
ethanol
Combustion
Dehydration

39. Chemical properties of ethanol
a) Combustion
Ethanol burns with a non-smoky blue flame
C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g)
2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
Combustion of ethanol releases large amount
Of heat. Ethanol suitable as a fuel

40. b) Oxidation
CH3CH2OH (l) + 2[O]
CH3COOH (l) + H2O (l)
ethanoic acid
oxidising agent: acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution
( colour change from orange to green)
acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution
( colour change from purple to colourless)

41. c) Dehydration
txt bk pg 64
module pg 72

42. 2 methods to carry out a dehydration of ethanol
(a) Ethanol vapour is passed over a heated catalyst such as
unglazed porcelain chips, porous pot, pumice stone or
aluminium oxide
(a) Ethanol is heated under reflux at 170 °C with excess
concentrated sulphuric acid

43. Uses of alcohols
(a) As a solvent
(a) as a fuel
-perfumes, cosmetics
-thinners for lacquers, varnishers
- a mixture of petrolwith 10-20 % ethanol (gasohol)
- methanol (as a fuel for racing cars)
(a) As a source of chemicals
- as a raw material in the manufacture of
polymers, fibres, explosives and plastics
- ethanol
ethanoic acid (vinegar)
(a) As a source of medicinal products
- ethanol- as a solvent in the preparation of
cough syrups
- propan-2-ol –as a rubbing alcohol (bring down high
fever)

44. E: CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
General Formula
Functional Group
: CnH2n+1COOH ,n=0,1,2…
: -COOH (carboxyl group)

45. Naming carboxylic acids
Find the longest continuous carbon chain containing the carboxyl
group
Name this longest chain by replacing the ending –e of the
corresponding alkane with –oic acid
Number the carbon atoms in this longest chain beginning at the
carboxyl group
Locate and name the attached alkyl group
Complete the name for the carboxylic acid molecule by combining
the 2 component parts together

46. Making ethanoic acid
- oxidation of ethanol by refluxing ethanol with
an oxidising agent such as acidified potassiun
dichromate (VI) solution or acidified
potassium manganate (VII) solution

47. Refluxing : prevent the loss of a volatile liquid by
vaporisation
Ethanoic acid formed is removed by fractional
distillation

48. Very soluble in
water
Physical
properties
of ethanoic
acid
Sour smell like
vinegar
Colourless
liquid at room
conditions

49. Chemical properties of ethanoic acid
(a) Acid properties- ethanoic acid is a weak monoprotic
acid
CH3COOH (aq) ↔ CH3COO⁻ (aq) + H⁺ (aq)
Ethanoic acid
Ethanoate ion
(b) Reactions with metals
2CH3COOH (aq) + Zn(s) ↔ Zn(CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(c) Reactions with base
2CH3COOH (aq) + CuO(s) ↔ Cu(CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

50. (d) Reactions with carbonate
2CH3COOH (aq) + CaCO3(s) ↔ Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + CO2(g)+ H2O (l)
(e) Reactions with alcohols (esterification)

51. Chemical reactions of other carboxylic acid
•
•
•
•
Carboxylic acid + reactive metal
carboxylate salt + hydrogen
Carboxylic acid + base
carboxylate salt + water
Carboxylic acid + metal carbonate
carboxylate salt + CO2 + H2O
Carboxylic acid +alcohol
ester + water

52. Uses of carboxylic acids
Ethanoic acid
(acetic acid)
Methanoic acid
(formic acid)
Benzoic acid
• As food flavouring
• As preservative
• Coagulate latex
• As preservative in foods

53. G: ESTERS
General Formula : CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1 ,n=0,1,2…
m=1,2,3…
Functional Group
: -COO (carboxylate group)

54. Naming esters
• pg 77
• The name of an ester consists of 2 separate words. The alcohol part
is named fist followed by the acid part
Identify and name the alcohol part of the ester (alkyl group)
Identify and name the acid part of the ester
(change –oic acid to –oate)
Combine the both parts to obtain the name of the ester

55. Formation of esters
Esters are produced by an esterification reaction
(carboxylic acid reacts with alcohol in the presence
of concentrated sulphuric acid as a catalyst)
Example :
HCOOH + CH3OH
methanoic acid
H2SO4
HCOOCH3 + H2O
methyl methanoate

56. Low density,
less dense
than water
Colourless
liquid at room
temperature
Sweet smell
Very volatile
Physical
properties of
esters
Insoluble in
water

57. Use of esters
Used in the
preparation of
cosmetics and
perfumes
As artificial flavour
in processed food
and drinks
Used in the production of
polyester (synthetic
fibers for makng textiles)
Most are found naturally in
fruits and flowers(Their
fragrance are due to the
presence of esters)

58. H: FATS
• Fats found in animals are solids at room
temperature. Eg: butter
• Fats from plants are liquids.
oils
• Fats and oils are esters (fatty acids + glycerol)
• Fatty acids containing 12-18 Carbon atoms per
molecule

60. Source of
energy
Thermal
insulation
The
importance of
oils and fats
protection
Source of
nutrients

61. Saturated and unsaturated fats
Saturated fats
• Fats which contain esters of glycerols and saturated
fatty acids
• saturated fatty acids :
has all carbon atoms joined together by
carbon-carbon single bond

63. Unsaturated fats
• Fats which contain esters of glycerols and
unsaturated fatty acids
• Unsaturated fatty acids:
carbon chain has one or more carboncarbon double bond

65. Converting unsaturated fats into saturated fats
• By a process called catalytic hydrogenation
( by bubbling hydrogen gas through hot liquid oil)
catalyst
temperature
pressure
Module 88
: nickel
: 200oC
: 4atm

66. Effects of fats on health
obesity
Plant or vegetable oil do not contain
cholesterol: not cause cardiovascular
problems
Saturated fats raise the level of cholesterol:
the flow of the blood in the arteries might be
blocked and lead to heart attack and stroke

67. Extraction process of palm oil

68. Rich in Vitamin
E(powerful
antioxidant)
Advantages
of palm oil
Cholesterol free
Rich in betacarotene which
contains Vitamin E

69. I : NATURAL RUBBER
• Natural polymers are polymers that exist in
nature and not man-made
Natural polymer
Monomer
Protein
Amino acid
Carbohydrate
Glucose
Natural rubber
Isoprene

70. Natural rubber
• Monomer: isoprene (2-methylbut-1,3-diene)
• Nota pg 38

71. Coagulation process of latex
Each rubber particle is made up of rubber polymers covered
by a layer of protein membrane
Negative charges are found on the surface of the membrane,
making each rubber particle negatively charged. The
negatively charged rubber particles repel each other,
preventing themselves from combining and coagulating

72. When acid is added to latex:
Hydrogen ion from the acid nautralise the negative charges
on the surface of the membrane. A neutral rubber particle is
formed.
When these neutral particles collide with each other, their
outer membrane layers break up. The rubber polymers are
set free.
The rubber polymers start to coagulate by combining
together

73. •Bacteria from the air attack the protein on the membrane to
produce lactic acid
•Alkalis such as ammonia solution are added to latex to prevent
coagulation
•The hydroxide ions from alkali neutralise hydrogen ions
produced by lactic acid as aresult of bacterial attack on protein
•Bcause there are no hydrogen ions to neutralise the negative
charges on the rubber particles, they remain negatively charged
and hence cannot combine and coagulate

74. Insoluble in
water
Unstable to
oxidation
Properties of
natural
rubber
elastic
Unstable to
heat

75. Vulcanization
• Is a process whereby rubber is reacted wth
sulphur to improved the properties of natural
rubber

Sulphur is heated together with natural
rubber

Rubber stripe is soaked in sulphur
monochloride solution in methylbenzene
for a few hours, then dried
Txt bk 95