This document provides information and instructions for measuring fluid viscosity using various laboratory instruments. It begins with definitions of viscosity, density, and rheology. It then describes different types of viscometers including the falling ball viscometer, capillary tube viscometers like the Ostwald viscometer, and rotational viscometers. The document provides details on operating the Ruska rolling ball viscometer and calculating viscosity. It also discusses Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid behavior and factors that influence viscosity like temperature, pressure, and molecular weight.
The document discusses the phase rule and key concepts related to phase diagrams including:
- The phase rule equation relates the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system.
- Phase diagrams illustrate the conditions where phases can coexist in equilibrium and include curves representing phase boundaries.
- The water and sulfur systems are examined as examples, with their phase diagrams explained and key features like triple points highlighted.
The document discusses viscosity measurement using a Ubbelohde viscometer. It measures the flow time of a dilute polymer solution dropping between two levels to calculate viscosity values like relative viscosity, specific viscosity, reduced viscosity, and inherent viscosity. These viscosity designations can be related to the molecular weight of the polymer using equations like the Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation. Precise viscosity measurements require a clean vertical viscometer and constant temperature control.
This document discusses interfacial phenomena, including the definition of interfaces and interfacial phases. It describes different types of interfaces that can exist depending on whether the two adjacent phases are solid, liquid, or gas. Importance in pharmacy includes drug adsorption, penetration through membranes, emulsion formation and stability, and dispersion of insoluble particles. Surface and interfacial tension are explained, as well as measurement methods. The document also covers surface active agents, electric properties of interfaces like zeta potential, adsorption at liquid interfaces, and micelle formation.
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. It is defined as the shear stress divided by the rate of shear strain. There are several methods to measure viscosity, including using capillary tubes, rotating viscometers, and falling ball viscometers. The measurement involves determining the time required for liquid to flow through a capillary or for a ball to fall between marks in a viscometer tube, from which the dynamic viscosity in mPa·s can be calculated. Viscosity measurements require controlling the temperature accurately, usually within 0.1°C.
The document discusses key concepts in gas chromatography including theoretical plates, resolution, retention time, retention volume, separation factor, height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP), peak asymmetry, stationary phases, and considerations for choosing stationary phases. It provides definitions and equations for these terms and concepts. Examples of common stationary phase materials and their applications are also presented.
The document discusses the phase rule, which relates the degrees of freedom, number of components, and number of phases in a system at equilibrium. It defines key terms like phase diagram, phase boundary, component, and phase. The phase rule statement is f=c-p+2, where f is degrees of freedom, c is number of components, and p is number of phases. For a single-component system like water, this means the degrees of freedom is 2 when one phase is present, 1 when two phases coexist, and 0 when three phases are in equilibrium. Examples are also given for solid, liquid, and gas phases in water and metallurgical systems where pressure is constant.
Gas chromatography is a technique used to separate components of a vaporized sample. It works by partitioning the components between a mobile gaseous phase and a stationary phase within a column. The sample is injected and vaporized, then transported through the column by the mobile phase gas. As the components pass through the column they are separated and detected. Common detectors include the flame ionization detector (FID), thermal conductivity detector (TCD), and electron capture detector (ECD). The FID responds to organic compounds, the TCD is universal but less sensitive, and the ECD selectively detects halogen-containing compounds.
Liquid chromatography still striving for high efficiencyguest63ff7d
The document discusses liquid chromatography and approaches to improve its efficiency. It provides an overview of the chromatographic process and factors that affect column efficiency such as mobile phase velocity, temperature, column length, particle size. Existing approaches to improve efficiency include high temperature liquid chromatography, monolithic stationary phases, fused-core particles, and sub-2-micron totally porous particles. Overall miniaturization shows potential for future efficiency gains in liquid chromatography.
The document discusses the phase rule and key concepts related to phase diagrams including:
- The phase rule equation relates the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system.
- Phase diagrams illustrate the conditions where phases can coexist in equilibrium and include curves representing phase boundaries.
- The water and sulfur systems are examined as examples, with their phase diagrams explained and key features like triple points highlighted.
The document discusses viscosity measurement using a Ubbelohde viscometer. It measures the flow time of a dilute polymer solution dropping between two levels to calculate viscosity values like relative viscosity, specific viscosity, reduced viscosity, and inherent viscosity. These viscosity designations can be related to the molecular weight of the polymer using equations like the Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation. Precise viscosity measurements require a clean vertical viscometer and constant temperature control.
This document discusses interfacial phenomena, including the definition of interfaces and interfacial phases. It describes different types of interfaces that can exist depending on whether the two adjacent phases are solid, liquid, or gas. Importance in pharmacy includes drug adsorption, penetration through membranes, emulsion formation and stability, and dispersion of insoluble particles. Surface and interfacial tension are explained, as well as measurement methods. The document also covers surface active agents, electric properties of interfaces like zeta potential, adsorption at liquid interfaces, and micelle formation.
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. It is defined as the shear stress divided by the rate of shear strain. There are several methods to measure viscosity, including using capillary tubes, rotating viscometers, and falling ball viscometers. The measurement involves determining the time required for liquid to flow through a capillary or for a ball to fall between marks in a viscometer tube, from which the dynamic viscosity in mPa·s can be calculated. Viscosity measurements require controlling the temperature accurately, usually within 0.1°C.
The document discusses key concepts in gas chromatography including theoretical plates, resolution, retention time, retention volume, separation factor, height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP), peak asymmetry, stationary phases, and considerations for choosing stationary phases. It provides definitions and equations for these terms and concepts. Examples of common stationary phase materials and their applications are also presented.
The document discusses the phase rule, which relates the degrees of freedom, number of components, and number of phases in a system at equilibrium. It defines key terms like phase diagram, phase boundary, component, and phase. The phase rule statement is f=c-p+2, where f is degrees of freedom, c is number of components, and p is number of phases. For a single-component system like water, this means the degrees of freedom is 2 when one phase is present, 1 when two phases coexist, and 0 when three phases are in equilibrium. Examples are also given for solid, liquid, and gas phases in water and metallurgical systems where pressure is constant.
Gas chromatography is a technique used to separate components of a vaporized sample. It works by partitioning the components between a mobile gaseous phase and a stationary phase within a column. The sample is injected and vaporized, then transported through the column by the mobile phase gas. As the components pass through the column they are separated and detected. Common detectors include the flame ionization detector (FID), thermal conductivity detector (TCD), and electron capture detector (ECD). The FID responds to organic compounds, the TCD is universal but less sensitive, and the ECD selectively detects halogen-containing compounds.
Liquid chromatography still striving for high efficiencyguest63ff7d
The document discusses liquid chromatography and approaches to improve its efficiency. It provides an overview of the chromatographic process and factors that affect column efficiency such as mobile phase velocity, temperature, column length, particle size. Existing approaches to improve efficiency include high temperature liquid chromatography, monolithic stationary phases, fused-core particles, and sub-2-micron totally porous particles. Overall miniaturization shows potential for future efficiency gains in liquid chromatography.
- Precision refers to how closely repeated measurements are clustered together, while accuracy describes how close measurements are to the true value. There are various ways to express accuracy and precision numerically.
- Accuracy can be expressed as absolute error or relative error compared to the true value. Precision can be expressed using values like standard deviation, deviation from the mean/median, and range.
- Errors can be determinate (systematic) or indeterminate (random). Determinate errors are consistent and can be avoided, while indeterminate errors follow a normal distribution and cannot be eliminated. Statistical analysis is needed to understand random error.
Chromatography is a technique used to separate mixtures by distributing components between a stationary and mobile phase. Separation occurs as components interact differently with the phases and move through a column at different rates. Key terms include retention time, plate number, and resolution which characterize separation efficiency. Variables like particle size, temperature, flow rate, and column length affect efficiency by influencing how components partition between phases.
The document discusses the principles of chromatography. It describes how chromatography separates components in a mixture based on differences in their interactions with mobile and stationary phases. It discusses how Michael Tswett first demonstrated chromatography in 1903 and the key aspects of how it works. These include how retention time, partition coefficients, selectivity factors and efficiency parameters like plate number and height equivalent to a theoretical plate are used to characterize chromatographic separations.
The movement of molecules from one phase to another is called partitioning.
If two immiscible phases are placed adjacent to each other, the solute will distribute itself between two immiscible phases until equilibrium is attained; therefore no further transfer of solute occurs.
This document discusses wettability and capillary pressure in porous media. It defines wettability as the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids. Capillary pressure is the pressure difference between two immiscible fluids due to the curvature of the interface between them. There are three types of capillary pressure depending on the fluid pairs: water-oil, gas-oil, and gas-water. Capillary pressure data are important for determining initial fluid saturations, seal capacity, and relative permeability in reservoirs.
The document discusses azeotropic and steam distillation. It defines azeotropes as mixtures that have the same composition in both the liquid and vapor phases, preventing separation through simple distillation. There are two types: minimum boiling and maximum boiling azeotropes. Methods to separate azeotropes include pressure swing distillation, azeotropic distillation using an entrainer, and steam distillation for heat-sensitive compounds. Azeotropic distillation works by forming a new low-boiling azeotrope with the entrainer, then separating the components in a decanter. Steam distillation uses water vapor to carry compounds over at lower temperatures than simple distillation
Extraction theory involves removing soluble materials from insolids using liquid solvents. Liquid-liquid extraction is a useful method to separate components of a mixture based on differences in solubility between solvents. For example, sugar can be extracted from vegetable oil by shaking the mixture with water, as sugar is more soluble in water than oil. The partition coefficient K quantifies differences in solubility, with some compounds made more water-soluble by conversion to ionic salt forms using acid or base treatment. This allows separation of organic acid/base mixtures based on differing solubility properties.
This document discusses HPLC columns, including:
1. Silica is commonly used as the surface for HPLC columns, with silanols bonding to the surface. Pore size and surface area impact analyte retention and loading capacity.
2. Column particle sizes have decreased over time from 100 μm to below 2 μm, increasing theoretical plate counts. Column dimensions and particle sizes are selected based on the application.
3. Pore size should be larger than analyte molecules to allow entry without hindrance. Pore sizes of 60-80Å or 95-300Å are recommended for small molecules or proteins, respectively.
Troubleshooting is a process of identifying problems, determining their causes, and finding solutions. For high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), there are many potential sources of errors including instrumental issues, procedural problems, and human errors. This can result in symptoms like changes in retention time, peak issues, baseline abnormalities, and pressure fluctuations. Troubleshooting HPLC issues involves preliminary checks, examining the column and fittings for leaks, and investigating potential causes of different problem symptoms to resolve them.
Viscometry,newtonian & non newtonian flow behaviourShyamala C
1. The document discusses different types of viscometers used to measure viscosity and flow properties of fluids. It also describes Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid behavior.
2. Newtonian fluids have viscosities that are constant and not dependent on shear rates or flow conditions. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit viscosities that change with applied stresses or shear rates.
3. Non-Newtonian behavior includes shear thinning, shear thickening, and time-dependent effects like thixotropy and rheopexy where viscosity depends on flow history or duration of shearing. Many materials exhibit both viscous and elastic properties.
Presentation on fractional distillation. Introduction to distillation, fractional distillation, its principle, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
presented to : Dr | Hamdy El-Kady
Physical Chemistry Course 2016-2017
prepared By : Muhammad Mamdouh Abdulsalam
Faculty Of Petroleum Engineering, Suez University
Presenting a presentation on the topic of Column chromatography with including basics of chromatography, principles, equations, graphs and data related to it.
Topics which covered in this ppt is
Principle of chromatography
classification of chromatography
partition coefficient
chromatogram
Resolution
plate theory
determination of N
band zone broadening
rate theory
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Please like, share, comment and follow.
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This document describes how to measure the dynamic viscosity of glycerin using an Ostwald viscometer at different temperatures. Key points:
- The Ostwald viscometer experiment involves measuring the flow rate of glycerin-water solutions through a capillary tube at controlled temperatures.
- Flow rate is measured by timing how long it takes the solution level to drop between marked intervals on the viscometer. Lower flow rates indicate higher viscosity.
- Dynamic viscosity is calculated using Poiseuille's law, which relates viscosity to factors like flow rate, capillary tube radius and length, pressure, and temperature.
- Glycerin-water solutions at varying concentrations are tested to obtain viscosity measurements
The CSC duNouy Tensiometer is a laboratory Instrument for the purpose of determining the strength of a liquid surface. Test is used in coatings and industries. Applications are also in chemical, pharmaceutical and electric power applications.
The document discusses viscosity, which is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It defines viscosity and describes how it relates to shear stress and shear rate. The document also covers different types of viscosity like Newtonian, shear thinning, and thixotropic. It discusses viscosity units and coefficients, and how viscosity varies with temperature according to the Arrhenius model. Finally, it briefly compares Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
This document discusses conductometric titration, which is a quantitative analysis method used to determine the concentration of an analyte in a mixture by measuring electrical conductivity changes during a titration. It describes different types of titrations including strong acid with strong base, weak acid with strong base, strong acid with weak base, and weak acid with weak base. Break points, curves, and plateau regions are discussed for each type of titration. Displacement and precipitation titrations are also summarized. Finally, the general procedure for a conductometric titration of an acid with a base is outlined.
Introduction to Role of pH & Conductivity meter in formulation development
Principle & Applications
Presented by
G.Govardhan Reddy
Department of Industrial Pharmacy
Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative analytical technique where the concentration of an analyte is determined by precipitating it from solution, isolating the precipitate, and weighing it. Some key aspects of gravimetric analysis are that the precipitate must be insoluble, of known composition, and pure to minimize errors from impurities. Conditions like precipitation temperature, reagent concentrations, and digestion can be adjusted to increase particle size and purity for accurate weighing and analysis.
This presentation covers concepts such as surface tension, surface energy, liquid drops and bubbles, wetting, capillarity at the elementary school level. Comment down in a box for improvement.
This document provides information about the Saybolt viscometer, a device used to measure the viscosity of fluids. It defines viscosity and describes how the Saybolt viscometer works by measuring the time it takes for a fixed volume of fluid to flow through a temperature-controlled orifice. The document discusses the advantages of accurate temperature control and direct viscosity comparisons, and the disadvantages of potential inaccuracies. It also notes the Saybolt viscometer is commonly used to test petroleum products and measure viscosities in the field.
This document provides information and instructions for measuring fluid density in a reservoir engineering laboratory course. It defines key terms like density and specific gravity. Common methods for determining density are described, including the Westphal balance, hydrometer, pycnometer, and bicapillary pycnometer. Step-by-step procedures are given for measuring density using a pycnometer, including cleaning, filling, weighing, and calculating density based on measurements. Reference tables of water density at different temperatures are also included.
- Precision refers to how closely repeated measurements are clustered together, while accuracy describes how close measurements are to the true value. There are various ways to express accuracy and precision numerically.
- Accuracy can be expressed as absolute error or relative error compared to the true value. Precision can be expressed using values like standard deviation, deviation from the mean/median, and range.
- Errors can be determinate (systematic) or indeterminate (random). Determinate errors are consistent and can be avoided, while indeterminate errors follow a normal distribution and cannot be eliminated. Statistical analysis is needed to understand random error.
Chromatography is a technique used to separate mixtures by distributing components between a stationary and mobile phase. Separation occurs as components interact differently with the phases and move through a column at different rates. Key terms include retention time, plate number, and resolution which characterize separation efficiency. Variables like particle size, temperature, flow rate, and column length affect efficiency by influencing how components partition between phases.
The document discusses the principles of chromatography. It describes how chromatography separates components in a mixture based on differences in their interactions with mobile and stationary phases. It discusses how Michael Tswett first demonstrated chromatography in 1903 and the key aspects of how it works. These include how retention time, partition coefficients, selectivity factors and efficiency parameters like plate number and height equivalent to a theoretical plate are used to characterize chromatographic separations.
The movement of molecules from one phase to another is called partitioning.
If two immiscible phases are placed adjacent to each other, the solute will distribute itself between two immiscible phases until equilibrium is attained; therefore no further transfer of solute occurs.
This document discusses wettability and capillary pressure in porous media. It defines wettability as the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids. Capillary pressure is the pressure difference between two immiscible fluids due to the curvature of the interface between them. There are three types of capillary pressure depending on the fluid pairs: water-oil, gas-oil, and gas-water. Capillary pressure data are important for determining initial fluid saturations, seal capacity, and relative permeability in reservoirs.
The document discusses azeotropic and steam distillation. It defines azeotropes as mixtures that have the same composition in both the liquid and vapor phases, preventing separation through simple distillation. There are two types: minimum boiling and maximum boiling azeotropes. Methods to separate azeotropes include pressure swing distillation, azeotropic distillation using an entrainer, and steam distillation for heat-sensitive compounds. Azeotropic distillation works by forming a new low-boiling azeotrope with the entrainer, then separating the components in a decanter. Steam distillation uses water vapor to carry compounds over at lower temperatures than simple distillation
Extraction theory involves removing soluble materials from insolids using liquid solvents. Liquid-liquid extraction is a useful method to separate components of a mixture based on differences in solubility between solvents. For example, sugar can be extracted from vegetable oil by shaking the mixture with water, as sugar is more soluble in water than oil. The partition coefficient K quantifies differences in solubility, with some compounds made more water-soluble by conversion to ionic salt forms using acid or base treatment. This allows separation of organic acid/base mixtures based on differing solubility properties.
This document discusses HPLC columns, including:
1. Silica is commonly used as the surface for HPLC columns, with silanols bonding to the surface. Pore size and surface area impact analyte retention and loading capacity.
2. Column particle sizes have decreased over time from 100 μm to below 2 μm, increasing theoretical plate counts. Column dimensions and particle sizes are selected based on the application.
3. Pore size should be larger than analyte molecules to allow entry without hindrance. Pore sizes of 60-80Å or 95-300Å are recommended for small molecules or proteins, respectively.
Troubleshooting is a process of identifying problems, determining their causes, and finding solutions. For high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), there are many potential sources of errors including instrumental issues, procedural problems, and human errors. This can result in symptoms like changes in retention time, peak issues, baseline abnormalities, and pressure fluctuations. Troubleshooting HPLC issues involves preliminary checks, examining the column and fittings for leaks, and investigating potential causes of different problem symptoms to resolve them.
Viscometry,newtonian & non newtonian flow behaviourShyamala C
1. The document discusses different types of viscometers used to measure viscosity and flow properties of fluids. It also describes Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid behavior.
2. Newtonian fluids have viscosities that are constant and not dependent on shear rates or flow conditions. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit viscosities that change with applied stresses or shear rates.
3. Non-Newtonian behavior includes shear thinning, shear thickening, and time-dependent effects like thixotropy and rheopexy where viscosity depends on flow history or duration of shearing. Many materials exhibit both viscous and elastic properties.
Presentation on fractional distillation. Introduction to distillation, fractional distillation, its principle, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
presented to : Dr | Hamdy El-Kady
Physical Chemistry Course 2016-2017
prepared By : Muhammad Mamdouh Abdulsalam
Faculty Of Petroleum Engineering, Suez University
Presenting a presentation on the topic of Column chromatography with including basics of chromatography, principles, equations, graphs and data related to it.
Topics which covered in this ppt is
Principle of chromatography
classification of chromatography
partition coefficient
chromatogram
Resolution
plate theory
determination of N
band zone broadening
rate theory
https://www.linkedin.com/in/preeti-choudhary-266414182/
https://www.instagram.com/chaudharypreeti1997/
https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100013419194533
https://twitter.com/preetic27018281
Please like, share, comment and follow.
stay connected
If any query then contact:
chaudharypreeti1997@gmail.com
Thanking-You
Preeti Choudhary
This document describes how to measure the dynamic viscosity of glycerin using an Ostwald viscometer at different temperatures. Key points:
- The Ostwald viscometer experiment involves measuring the flow rate of glycerin-water solutions through a capillary tube at controlled temperatures.
- Flow rate is measured by timing how long it takes the solution level to drop between marked intervals on the viscometer. Lower flow rates indicate higher viscosity.
- Dynamic viscosity is calculated using Poiseuille's law, which relates viscosity to factors like flow rate, capillary tube radius and length, pressure, and temperature.
- Glycerin-water solutions at varying concentrations are tested to obtain viscosity measurements
The CSC duNouy Tensiometer is a laboratory Instrument for the purpose of determining the strength of a liquid surface. Test is used in coatings and industries. Applications are also in chemical, pharmaceutical and electric power applications.
The document discusses viscosity, which is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It defines viscosity and describes how it relates to shear stress and shear rate. The document also covers different types of viscosity like Newtonian, shear thinning, and thixotropic. It discusses viscosity units and coefficients, and how viscosity varies with temperature according to the Arrhenius model. Finally, it briefly compares Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
This document discusses conductometric titration, which is a quantitative analysis method used to determine the concentration of an analyte in a mixture by measuring electrical conductivity changes during a titration. It describes different types of titrations including strong acid with strong base, weak acid with strong base, strong acid with weak base, and weak acid with weak base. Break points, curves, and plateau regions are discussed for each type of titration. Displacement and precipitation titrations are also summarized. Finally, the general procedure for a conductometric titration of an acid with a base is outlined.
Introduction to Role of pH & Conductivity meter in formulation development
Principle & Applications
Presented by
G.Govardhan Reddy
Department of Industrial Pharmacy
Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative analytical technique where the concentration of an analyte is determined by precipitating it from solution, isolating the precipitate, and weighing it. Some key aspects of gravimetric analysis are that the precipitate must be insoluble, of known composition, and pure to minimize errors from impurities. Conditions like precipitation temperature, reagent concentrations, and digestion can be adjusted to increase particle size and purity for accurate weighing and analysis.
This presentation covers concepts such as surface tension, surface energy, liquid drops and bubbles, wetting, capillarity at the elementary school level. Comment down in a box for improvement.
This document provides information about the Saybolt viscometer, a device used to measure the viscosity of fluids. It defines viscosity and describes how the Saybolt viscometer works by measuring the time it takes for a fixed volume of fluid to flow through a temperature-controlled orifice. The document discusses the advantages of accurate temperature control and direct viscosity comparisons, and the disadvantages of potential inaccuracies. It also notes the Saybolt viscometer is commonly used to test petroleum products and measure viscosities in the field.
This document provides information and instructions for measuring fluid density in a reservoir engineering laboratory course. It defines key terms like density and specific gravity. Common methods for determining density are described, including the Westphal balance, hydrometer, pycnometer, and bicapillary pycnometer. Step-by-step procedures are given for measuring density using a pycnometer, including cleaning, filling, weighing, and calculating density based on measurements. Reference tables of water density at different temperatures are also included.
This document provides an overview of several laboratory methods for measuring fluid properties like viscosity and interfacial tension. It describes viscometers that measure viscosity through the falling or rolling of balls, capillary flow, or rotational motion. Methods for measuring interfacial tension are also outlined, including the capillary rise, Wilhelmy plate, ring, drop weight, pendant drop, and spinning drop techniques. Calculation procedures for determining tension from measurements in each method are demonstrated through equations and diagrams.
Fluid properties such as density, specific volume, specific weight, specific gravity, compressibility, viscosity, and surface tension are discussed. Density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. Specific volume is defined as the volume of substance per unit mass. Specific weight is the weight of substance per unit volume. Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of water. Compressibility refers to the change in volume of a fluid with changes in pressure. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to shear forces and depends on factors like cohesion and molecular momentum. The falling sphere viscometer is used to measure viscosity and involves dropping a sphere in a fluid and measuring its velocity over
This document discusses drilling hydraulics and optimization of drilling programs. It covers topics such as fluid flow models, calculating pressure drops, determining friction factors, and optimizing nozzle selection and hydraulic horsepower. The goal of optimization is to design hydraulic programs that provide maximum bottom hole cleaning and penetration rates given surface power availability. Key equations are presented to calculate pressure losses through drill pipes, annuli, surface equipment, nozzles, and friction factors for different flow regimes and fluid models.
This document provides an overview of well logging concepts and techniques. It discusses standard log presentation formats, different scale types, and log headings for common logs like SP, GR, resistivity, neutron, and density. It provides examples of using these logs to identify clean zones, determine fluid types, and detect hydrocarbons. Key electrical properties like resistivity and spontaneous potential are also explained. The document is intended to familiarize readers with reading well logs and understanding the information they provide.
This document provides an overview of well logging and the development of resistivity log interpretation through the seminal work of Leverett and Archie. Key points include:
- Leverett measured resistivity of core samples at different water saturations, linking resistivity to water saturation for the first time.
- Archie found that formation resistivity was related to water resistivity by a constant factor called formation factor, and that formation factor was related to porosity through a power law relationship.
- Archie and others showed resistivity could be used to determine water saturation through empirical relationships involving porosity, water resistivity, and saturation and cementation exponents.
- This established the basis for quantitative interpretation of resistivity logs in terms
This document provides an overview of induction logging techniques. It discusses the principles behind induction logging tools, including how they use transmitter and receiver coils to measure formation conductivity. It describes different coil configurations and focusing methods used to obtain measurements at various depths. The document also covers induction log corrections for effects like shoulder beds, borehole conditions, and skin effect. It provides an example induction log showing identification of thick and thin hydrocarbon zones.
This document provides an overview of well logging techniques, beginning with early electrical logging tools like the short normal device. It discusses the shortcomings of these unfocused devices in dealing with conductive borehole mud and thin resistive beds. Later sections describe the development of focused devices like the Laterolog, which aim to force current into the formation and reduce borehole effects. These include the Laterolog-3 with guard electrodes and Laterolog-7 with additional monitoring electrodes to further improve current focusing.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in drilling engineering and well cost estimation. It discusses elements of well costing such as rig costs, tangibles, and services. It also covers time estimates and depth-time curves, risk assessment in cost calculations using P10, P50, P90 estimates, and factors affecting well costs such as location, well type, and rig type. Finally, it briefly discusses contract types such as conventional, integrated services, and turnkey contracts.
Gases have no definite volume and assume the volume of any vessel. The behavior of gases is described by gas laws including Boyle's law, Charles' law, Avogadro's law, and the ideal gas law. Real gases deviate from ideal behavior at high pressures and low temperatures and are better described by equations like van der Waals. Key gas properties include gas formation volume factor, gas compressibility factor, gas viscosity, and gas solubility in oil. Gas formation volume factor relates the volume of gas at reservoir conditions to standard surface conditions.
This document covers reservoir engineering concepts related to petroleum reservoirs. It discusses the classification of oil and gas reservoirs based on phase behavior and pressure-temperature relationships. It also summarizes key reservoir fluid properties for both gas and crude oil, including compressibility factors, density, molecular weight, and formation volume factors. The behaviors of real gases are contrasted with ideal gases and methods for determining compressibility factors are presented.
This document provides an overview of reservoir rock porosity determination methods. It defines total, effective, and dead porosity. It describes techniques for measuring bulk volume, including through dimensions, fluid displacement, and mercury injection. It discusses methods for determining grain volume, such as crushing samples and using a pycnometer or volumeter. The document emphasizes that knowing two of the three values (bulk volume, grain volume, or pore volume) is required to calculate porosity.
This document describes 23 different measuring instruments: ammeter, barometer, clock, dynamometer, electrometer, frequency counter, galvanometer, hydrometer, inclinometer, katharometer, load cell, multimeter, nephelometer, ohmmeter, pyrometer, quartz crystal microbalance, radiometer, SWR meter, tachometer, UV meter, voltmeter, wattmeter, and zymometer. For each instrument, a brief definition is provided along with the key variable or property that each instrument is used to measure.
Energy conversion engineering lab manual fullFarhan8885
This document contains information about experiments to determine properties of fuels and lubricants in an aircraft energy conversion laboratory. It includes the syllabus, list of experiments, and procedures for determining flash point and fire point using Abel's and Pensky Martens apparatus, calorific value using a Junker's calorimeter, and viscosity using a Redwood viscometer. The experiments provide methods for evaluating properties essential for aircraft fuel and lubricant performance and safety.
The document summarizes Brookfield's new DV-II+Pro viscometer, which features a sleek new design and optional computer control capabilities. It can measure viscosity across a wide range from 1 cP to 320 million cP using 54 selectable speeds and includes a temperature probe. The viscometer comes with software for custom test programming and optional software provides full computer control and data analysis capabilities.
This document provides information about the manufacturing processes at the Rail Wheel Factory in Bangalore, India. It describes the key steps in producing wheels, axles, and wheel sets, including: melting scrap steel in electric arc furnaces, casting steel wheels in molds, forging axles from billets, heat treating wheels and axles, and assembling wheel sets by pressing wheels onto axles. It also discusses the large electricity usage at the factory and quality assurance processes to meet standards.
The document discusses viscosity of fluids, including Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. It covers key concepts such as viscosity, shear stress, shear rate, and measurement using viscometers. Viscosity is a fluid's resistance to flow and depends on temperature. Newtonian fluids have viscosity that does not change with shear rate, while non-Newtonian fluids have apparent viscosity that varies with shear rate. Common types of non-Newtonian fluids and their behaviors are described. Rotational and tube viscometers are used to measure viscosity.
Gauge glasses, ball floats, chain floats, magnetic floats, conductivity probes, and differential pressure detectors are common level instrumentation types described. Gauge glasses simply indicate level visually in a transparent tube. Ball and chain floats are connected to indicators via rods or chains to show remote readings. Magnetic floats track level magnetically outside a tube. Conductivity probes detect level electrically. Differential pressure detectors compare pressures below and above the liquid level. Specific volume is the standard unit used for vapors and steam, accounting for density changes that affect pressure readings.
This document discusses rheology and the importance of understanding flow properties in pharmaceutical manufacturing and product administration. It defines rheology as the study of flow and deformation of matter under stress. The document covers various types of fluid flow including Newtonian, plastic, pseudoplastic and dilatant. It also discusses thixotropy and measurement of viscosity using single point viscometers like Ostwald and falling sphere, as well as multi-point viscometers like cup and bob and cone and plate. Understanding rheology is important for developing dosage forms and ensuring their proper handling and administration.
Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter. It involves measuring the viscosity and viscoelastic properties of materials under different conditions like temperature, pressure and shear rates. Various types of instruments called rheometers are used to measure rheological properties including rotational viscometers, capillary rheometers and other moving body viscometers. The document discusses different types of viscometers and rheometers used for measuring rheological properties of polymers and other materials.
This lab report describes an experiment to determine the viscosity of ethanol using an Ostwald viscometer. Water and ethanol were measured in the viscometer and their densities were calculated. The time taken for water and ethanol to flow through the viscometer was recorded. Using the measured densities and flow times along with the known viscosity of water, the viscosity of ethanol was calculated to be 1.867 N.s/m2 based on the formula that relates viscosity to density and flow time.
This document discusses different types of viscometers used to measure the viscosity of fluids. It describes the theory, operation, and applications of three common viscometers: the Redwood viscometer, Ubbelohde viscometer, and Hoppler viscometer. The Redwood viscometer measures viscosity based on the flow of liquid through an orifice. The Ubbelohde viscometer is a capillary tube viscometer that times liquid flow between marks. The Hoppler viscometer determines viscosity from the terminal velocity of a ball falling through a liquid in a tube. Each viscometer has advantages for certain applications like petroleum analysis, polymer testing, or nanofluid viscosity measurement.
This document summarizes different types of viscometers used to measure viscosity. It discusses capillary viscometers like Ostwald's viscometer which measures flow through a capillary tube. Falling and rising body viscometers like the Hoeppler ball viscometer measure the terminal velocity of a ball. Rotational viscometers like the cup and bob viscometer apply shear between two surfaces, one stationary and one rotating. Other viscometers described include cone and plate, vibrational, bubble, and oscillating viscometers. The document provides formulas, working principles, advantages and disadvantages of various viscometer types used to characterize fluids.
1. The document describes an experiment conducted to determine the rheological properties of viscosity and yield point of a drilling fluid sample using a Fann viscometer.
2. Key aspects of the experiment included preparing the mud sample, measuring its viscosity at 300 and 600 RPM, and determining its plastic viscosity and apparent viscosity. Calibration of the Marsh funnel and factors affecting rheological properties are also discussed.
3. Sources of potential error in measuring viscosity are described, such as improper mud weight, excess or insufficient fluid, and improper reading of the measuring scale.
This document discusses rheology and viscosity. It defines rheology as the science of flow of fluids and deformation of solids under stress. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow and is important in formulation of products like creams, ointments, and suspensions. The document describes different types of fluid flow based on viscosity, such as Newtonian, plastic, and pseudoplastic flow. It also discusses instruments used to measure viscosity like capillary, falling sphere, cup and bob, and cone and plate viscometers. Thixotropy, where the viscosity of a fluid decreases under shear stress over time, is also covered.
There are three main types of viscometers: capillary, falling, and rotational. Capillary viscometers are accurate for low viscosity newtonian fluids. They measure the time it takes a fluid to flow through a capillary tube under gravity. Rotational viscometers apply a torque to a cylinder or sphere in the fluid to determine viscosity based on shear stress. Common rotational viscometers include concentric cylinder, cone/plate, and coaxial cylinder designs which vary in whether the cup or bob rotates. Viscosity measurements depend on factors like fluid density, temperature, pressure, and rotational speed or flow time.
Rheology model 900 viscometer Mud Engineering Exp.Jarjis Mohammed
Rheology model 900 viscometer by jarjis
Experiment Number 7: Rheological Properties using Model 900 Viscometer.
Koya University.
Faculty of Engineering.
Drilling Lab
Supervised By Muhammad Jamal
=============
This a report about Rheological Properties using Model 900 Viscometer.. written by Jarjis Muhammad, Petroleum Engineering Dep. Koya University. For more Information please contact me: www.facebook.com/Jarjis.shaqlawaee
This document discusses different types of viscometers used to determine the viscosity of fluids. It describes single point viscometers like the Ostwald viscometer that are suitable for Newtonian fluids and measure viscosity at a single shear rate. Multipoint viscometers like the cup and bob viscometer are required for non-Newtonian fluids to obtain the entire viscosity curve by measuring viscosity at various shear rates. Common single point viscometers discussed are the Ostwald, falling sphere, and capillary viscometers which operate based on established laws like Poiseuille's law. Multipoint viscometers include the cup and bob, cone and plate, and rotating cylinder types.
The document discusses the Engler viscometer, which is used to measure the viscosity of lubricating oils. It does so by measuring the number of drops of oil that flow through an oil cup with a spherical bottom and central oil tube over a fixed period of time. The Engler degree scale is then used to compare the oil's flow time to that of water, with higher Engler degrees indicating higher viscosity. The device also includes a thermostat to control temperature, as viscosity can be influenced by ambient conditions.
Here are the key points to cover in your response:
1. Define hydrostatic equilibrium as the condition where the pressure exerted by a fluid is balanced by the weight of the fluid. Derive the expression that the pressure increases linearly with depth in a static fluid.
2. Define a U-tube manometer and derive the expression to calculate the pressure difference between two points based on the fluid height difference readings in the manometer limbs.
3. Explain the rheological properties of fluids including viscosity, Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. Define viscosity and give examples of Newtonian fluids.
4. Define boundary layer and explain the different layers within it - viscous sublayer, buffer layer and turbulent
This document describes procedures for measuring fluid viscosity. Key points:
- The experiment aims to calibrate a capillary tube system and measure viscosities of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids like water and peach juice.
- Equipment includes a capillary tube, sensors, timers and containers to pass fluids through the tube and measure flow properties.
- Calculations are provided to determine viscosity based on measurements of fluid flow rate and pressure using equations that apply to laminar flow.
- Viscosity is an intrinsic property but can vary for non-Newtonian fluids based on applied shear stress.
Rheology is the investigation of the progression of issue, fundamentally in a fluid state, yet in addition as "delicate solids" or solids under conditions in which they react with plastic stream as opposed to distorting flexibly because of an applied power. Rheology is the study of misshapening and stream inside a material.
This report outlines the procedure followed during the distilla.docxherthalearmont
This report outlines the procedure followed during the distillation column laboratory and the results and conclusions of the laboratory. Operation of a pilot-plant scale trayed distillation column under total reflux conditions was investigated at various boil-up rates, so as to determine the effect of an increase in boil-up rate upon the minimum number of theoretical stages required to effect a given separation of methanol and 2-propanol and the overall efficiency of operation with regard to product separation. The McCabe-Thiele graphical method, the Fenske equation, and a given equation were employed so as to determine the required minimum number of stages, NT, while this graphical method and a given equation were employed so as to determine the actual number of stages, NA. The overall efficiency, no, was determined according to its definition and a given equation for no.
The operating lines pertaining to each investigated boil-up rate reasonably approximated the 45o reference line, which is indicative of total reflux conditions. According to the Fenske equation and the given equation for NT, an increase in the boil-up rate over the investigated range was seen to decrease the minimum number of theoretical stages required to effect a given separation. The average overall efficiency, on the other hand, was seen to increase with a similar increase in the boil-up rate. The McCabe-Thiele graphical approach quite accurately predicted the actual number of stages, which was known to be eight.
Sincerely,
Abstract
In this laboratory, a pilot-plant scale trayed distillation column was investigated at total reflux conditions, namely with regard to the separation of methanol and 2-propanol at different boil-up rates or different rates of vapor exiting the reboiler within the column. Analysis of the separation of these two species was made possible by varying the power input to the reboiler within the column, which ultimately varied the boil-up rate. Such an analysis involved study of the pressure drop across the column and study of samples of the liquid and vapor and the temperature at all stages within the column, including the reboiler stage, at each investigated power input to the reboiler.
The operating lines pertaining to each of the investigated boil-up rates were seen to be approximately coincident with the 45o reference line, which was theoretically expected, given that the rectifying and stripping operating lines are coincident with this line under conditions of total reflux. Through the use of the given equation for NT, the minimum number of stages required to effect the separation achieved at boil-up rates of 0.270 mL/s, 0.350 mL/s, and 0.410 mL/s were determined to be 1.97, 1.71, and 1.55, respectively. The Fenske equation predicted values of NT of 0.604, 0.555, and 0.396, respectively, with regard to these boil-up rates. It was thus concluded that the required number of such stages decreased as the boil-up rate increased. With regar ...
This document appears to be lecture slides for a course on well logging in Farsi. It includes sections on topics that will be covered, references for further reading, and what appears to be notes on concepts like mud logging, sonic logs, resistivity logs, cross plots, and other well logging tools and techniques. The slides are attributed to Hossein AlamiNia from Islamic Azad University, Quchan Branch.
This document appears to be lecture notes for a class on stimulating and activating oil wells. It includes:
1. An introduction and information about the instructor.
2. Outlines for lecture topics, including well completion, well interventions, and references.
3. Schedules for class sessions with times allocated for presentations, breaks, and reviewing upcoming topics.
The document provides an overview of the class structure and topics to be covered for stimulating and activating oil wells. It outlines the lecture schedule and allocates time for presentations and reviews within the class sessions.
This document appears to be lecture notes from a geology laboratory class presented by Hossein AlamiNia from the Islamic Azad University of Ghoochan. The notes cover various topics relating to rock properties and characteristics, including rock heterogeneity, different classification systems, and methods for describing and analyzing rocks in a lab. Links are provided to online resources with additional information and sample data.
Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapte...University of Maribor
Slides from talk presenting:
Aleš Zamuda: Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapter and Networking.
Presentation at IcETRAN 2024 session:
"Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS
Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation"
IEEE Slovenia GRSS
IEEE Serbia and Montenegro MTT-S
IEEE Slovenia CIS
11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING ENGINEERING
3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMHODECEDSIET
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
2. 1. Initial definitions
2. Measurement of Density
3. Experiments:
A. Fluid density using the Pycnometer method
3. 1. Introduction (Theory):
2. Types of fluids
3. Viscometers;
A. the falling (or rolling) ball viscometer
B. Capillary Type Viscometer
C. Rotational Viscometers
4.
5. Viscosity as a rheological property
Rheology is the study of
the change in form and flow of matter
in terms of elasticity, viscosity and plasticity.
A clear understanding of the rheological properties of
fluids is vital in many fields of science and engineering.
Viscosity is
the measure of the internal friction of fluid.
This internal friction is caused
when a layer of fluid moves in relation to another layer.
The greater the friction,
the greater the amount of force required
to cause this movement.
This movement is known as shear.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 5
6. Deformation of a liquid under the
action of a tangential force.
To define viscosity
more precisely, let’s
take a look at the
figure.
Two parallel planes of
fluid of equal area “A”
are separated
by a distance dx and are
moving at different
speeds V1, V2.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 6
7. Viscosity definition
The force required to
maintain the difference
in speed is proportional
to the difference in
speed through the
liquid.
μ is known as
the viscosity,
usually in units of
centipoises or Pa.s.
dv/dx (or 𝛾) is
the shear rate.
Describes the shearing
the fluid experiences
when the layers move
with respect of each
other.
Units in reciprocal second,
sec-1.
F/A (or τ) is
the force per unit area
required for the shearing.
This is known as
the shear stress and
it has units of pressure.
Therefore, we can define
viscosity as:
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 7
8. Effect of Pressure on Viscosity
Viscosity of fluids varies with pressure and
temperature.
For most fluids the viscosity is rather sensitive to
changes in temperature, but relatively insensitive to
pressure until rather high pressures have been attained.
The viscosity of liquids usually rises with pressure at constant
temperature.
• Water is an exception to this rule; its viscosity decreases with
increasing pressure at constant temperature.
• For most cases of practical interest, however, the effect of
pressure on the viscosity of liquids can be ignored.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 8
9. Effect of Temperature and Molecular
Weight on Viscosity
Temperature has different effects on viscosity of
liquids and gases.
A decrease in temperature causes the viscosity of a
liquid to rise.
Effect of molecular weight on the viscosity of
liquids is as follows;
the liquid viscosity increases with increasing molecular
weight.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 9
10.
11. Newtonian fluids
A Newtonian fluid is
characterized by having a
constant viscosity at a
given temperature.
This is normally the case
for water and most oils.
A plot of shear rate versus
shear stress would show a
constant slope.
This is the simplest and
easiest fluids to measure
in the lab.
Shear rate versus Shear stress
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 11
12. Non Newtonian fluids
A non-Newtonian fluid is
characterized by not
having a unique value for
viscosity.
That is, the relationship
stress rate/shear rate is
not constant.
The viscosity of these
fluids will depend on the
shear rate applied.
There are several types
of non-Newtonian fluid
behavior that we can
observe in the lab.
The most common are
shown in the figure.
Shear rate versus Shear stress
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 12
13. types of non-Newtonian fluid behavior
Pseudo plastic fluids:
these are fluids like
paints and emulsions,
there is a decrease in
viscosity as the shear rate
increases.
Also known as shear
thinning fluids.
Dilatant fluids:
these are fluids that
increase their viscosity as
the shear rate increases.
Examples are cement
slurries, candy mixtures,
corn starch in water.
Also known as shear
thickening fluids.
Plastic fluids:
These fluids will behave
like solids under static
conditions. They will start
to flow only when certain
amount of pressure is
applied.
Examples are tomato
catsup and silly putty.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 13
14. Viscosity of different material
Below is a table of
viscosity values for some
common materials.
Material Viscosity (cP)
Benzene 0.60
Ethanol 1.06
Water 1 to 5
Mercury 1.55
Pentane 2.24
Blood 10
Anti-Freeze 14
Honey 2,000–3,000
Chocolate Syrup10,000–
25,000
Peanut Butter
150,000–250,000
the application of
(Dilatant materials)
shear thickening fluids
some all-wheel drive
(AWD, 4WD, or 4×4)
systems use a viscous
coupling unit full of
dilatant fluid
Body armor
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 14
15.
16. Instrument selection
Viscosity of liquids is
determined by
instruments called
viscosimeter or viscometer.
Most instruments
designed to measure
viscosity can be classified
in two general categories:
tube type and
rotational type.
The selection of a
particular instrument must
be based on the type of
analysis required and the
characteristics of the fluid
to be tested.
For example,
rotational methods are
generally more appropriate
for non-Newtonian fluids,
while glass capillary
viscometers are
only suitable for Newtonian
fluids.
In this lab,
we will use one instrument
to measure viscosity:
the Ruska Rolling Ball
viscometer.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 16
17. the falling (or rolling) ball viscometer
An instrument
commonly used for
determining viscosity of
a liquid is
the falling (or rolling)
ball viscometer,
which is based on
Stoke’s law for
a sphere falling
in a fluid
under effect of gravity.
A polished steel ball is
dropped into a glass tube
of a somewhat larger
diameter containing the
liquid, and the time
required for the ball to
fall at constant velocity
through a specified
distance between
reference marks is
recorded.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 17
18. The calculation
The following equation
is used
µ = absolute viscosity, cp
t =falling time, s
ρb = density of the ball,
gm/cm3
ρf = density of fluid at
measuring temperature,
gm/cm3
K = ball constant.
The ball constant K is not
dimensionless, but
involves the mechanical
equivalent of heat.
The rolling ball
viscometer will give good
results as long as
the fluid flow in the tube
remains in
the laminar range.
In some instruments of
this type both pressure
and temperature may be
controlled.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 18
19. Instruments to measure rheological
properties (Ruska falling ball)
Schematic diagram of the falling ball viscometer. Ruska falling ball viscometer
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 19
20. Ruska Apparatus
The Ruska rolling ball
viscometer is used to
determine the viscosity of
bottom hole and surface
samples at elevated
temperatures and pressures, up
to 10,000 psi and 300 °F.
This instrument operates on the
rolling ball principle, where the
roll time of a ¼ inch diameter
ball is used to obtain viscosity
data.
The viscosity is calculated as
μ: viscosity
K: constant
ρ ball: Density of the ball
ρ fluid: Density of the fluid
t: roll back time
The driving force in this
instrument is the difference in
density between the fluid and
the ball.
At a fixed temperature, the
difference in ball and fluid
density will be constant.
The viscosity Will be directly
proportional to the roll back
time.
The constant of the viscometer
must be determined by
previous calibration using a
liquid of known viscosity.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 20
21. Operating Procedure
Choose the correct ball
size.
If the fluid viscosity is
estimated to be between 0
and 5 cP, a 0.252 or 0.248
inch diameter ball should
be used.
Above 25 cP, the 0.234 inch
diameter ball will be
appropriate
Clean the test assembly
with kerosene and vent air
to ensure the chamber is
free of dust.
Place the ball
in the bottom of the
empty measuring barrel.
Evacuate the test
assembly.
This is done by opening
the vacuum pump valve at
the lower end of the unit
and closing the charging
valve.
Charge the test sample
fluid in the viscometer.
The vacuum valve should
be closed while the high
pressure charging valve is
reopened.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 21
22. Operating Procedure (Cont.)
Rock the test assembly to obtain a single phase sample.
The presence of gas bubbles inside the chamber can prevent the ball
from moving freely and stop the experiment completely.
Set the temperature of the viscosimeter to the desired value.
Allow 3 hours for the temperature to stabilize.
Bring the ball to the hold position, by rotating the test unit 180
degrees.
Turn on the coil and switch to HOLD. The yellow light must be on
Rotate the assembly to the desired angle (70°, 45°, or 23°),
this will depend on how viscous the fluid is.
Switch to FALL. The green light must be on.
The ball is released and the time to travel is displayed.
When the ball hits the bottom, a sound alarm will be triggered.
Calculate the viscosity by using the equation.
With the appropriate values for the constant.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 22
23.
24. Ostwald viscometer
One type of viscometer for liquids
is the Ostwald viscometer.
In this viscometer, the viscosity is
deduced from the comparison
of the times required for a given
volume of the tested liquids and of
a reference liquid to flow through
a given capillary tube under
specified initial head conditions.
During the measurement
the temperature of the liquid should
be kept constant by immersing
the instrument in
a temperature-controlled water bath.
Two types of Ostwald viscometers.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 24
25. Calculations for the Ostwald
viscometer
In this method
the Poiseuille’s law for
a capillary tube with
a laminar flow regime is
used
t is time required for
a given volume of liquid
V with density of ρ and
viscosity of μ
to flow through the
capillary tube of length l
and radius r by means of
pressure gradient ΔP.
The driving force P at this
instrument is ρgl. Then
or
The capillary constant is
determined from a liquid
with known viscosity.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 25
26. Description of the Liquid Viscosity
Measurement using Capillary Type
The main objective of
the Liquid Viscosity
Measurement is
to determine the kinematic
viscosity of Newtonian
liquid petroleum products.
For capillary viscometers
the time is measured in
seconds
for a fixed volume of liquid
to flow under gravity
through the capillary at a
closely controlled
temperature.
The kinematic viscosity is
the product of
the measured flow time
and the calibration constant
of the viscometer.
=(Const.*t)
The dynamic viscosity can
be obtained by
multiplying
the measured kinematic
viscosity
by the density of the liquid.
=Kinematic viscosity* ρ
=(Const.*t)*ρ
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 26
27. Definitions, Unit and dimensions:
Dynamic viscosity (μ)
is the ratio between the applied shear stress and
the rate of shear and is called coefficient of dynamic viscosity μ.
This coefficient is thus
a measure of the resistance to flow of the liquid;
it is commonly called the viscosity of the liquid.
Kinematic viscosity (υ)
is the ratio μ/ρ where ρ is fluid density.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 27
28. The experiment procedures:
Select a clean, dry calibrated
viscometer having a range
covering the estimated viscosity
(i.e. a wide capillary for a very viscous
liquid and a narrower capillary for a less
viscous liquid).
The flow time should not be less than
200 seconds.
Charge the viscometer:
To fill, turn viscometer upside down.
Dip tube (2) into the liquid to be
measured while applying suction to
tube (1) until liquid reaches mark (8).
After inverting to normal measuring
position,
close tube (1)
before liquid reach mark (3).
Viscometer apparatus
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 28
29. The experiment procedures: (Cont.)
Allow the charged viscometer
to remain long enough to reach the room temperature.
Read the calibration constants-directly from the viscometer.
Measuring operation:
Open tube (1) and measure
the time it takes the liquid to rise from mark (3) to mark (5).
Measuring the time for rising from mark (5) to mark (7)
allows viscosity measurement to be repeated
to check the first measurement.
If two measurements agree within required error
(generally 0.2-0.35%),
use the average for calculating the reported kinematic
viscosity.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 29
30. The experiment Calculations:
Calculate the kinematic
viscosity υ from the
measured flow time t and
the instrument constant by
means of the following
equation:
υ = kinematic viscosity, cSt
C = calibration constant,
cSt/s
t = flow time, s
θ = Hagenbach correction
factor,
when t < 400 seconds, it
should be corrected
according to the manual.
t > 400 seconds, θ = 0.
Calculate the viscosity μ
from the calculated
kinematic viscosity υ and
the density ρ by means of
the following equation:
μ = dynamic viscosity, cp
ρ avr = average density in
g/cm3 at the same
temperature used for
measuring the flow time t.
υ = kinematic, cSt.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 30
31. The experiment report:
Report test results for both
the kinematic and
dynamic viscosity.
Calculate the average dynamic viscosity.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 31
32.
33. the rotational viscosimeter
Other often used viscometers
especially for non-Newtonian
fluids are the rotational type
consisting of two concentric
cylinders, with the annulus
containing the liquid whose
viscosity is to be measured.
Either the outer cylinder or the
inner one is rotated at a constant
speed, and the rotational
deflection of the cylinder
becomes a measure of the
liquid’s viscosity.
Schematic diagram of the rotational viscometer
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 33
34. Calculations for the rotational
viscosimeter
When the distance between
the cylinders d, is small, we
can define the viscosity
gradient for laminar flow
regime as
R is radius of the inner
cylinder (bob) and ω is angular
velocity of the outer cylinder
(rotor) defined by ω = 2π n.
When the rotor is rotating at a
constant angular velocity ω
and the bob is held
motionless, the torque from
the torsion spring on the bob
must be equal but opposite in
direction to the torque on the
rotor from the motor.
The effective area of the
applied torque is 2 π.R.h
h is length of the cylinder.
The viscous drag on the bob is
k.θ.R,
k is the torsion constant of the
spring and θ is angular
displacement of the
instrument in degrees.
which gives
K is the instrument’s constant
which is determined by
calibration.
Summer 14 H. AlamiNia Reservoir Fluid Laboratory Course (1st Ed.) 34
35. 1. (KSU) M. Kinawy. “Reservoir engineering
laboratory manual" Petroleum and Natural
Gas Engineering Department, King Saud
University, Riyadh (2009).
2. “Dilatant.” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1
July 2014. Wikipedia. Web. 5 Aug. 2014.
3. (ABT) Torsæter, O., and M. Abtahi.
"Experimental reservoir engineering
laboratory work book." Department of
Petroleum Engineering and Applied
Geophysics, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim (2003).
Chapter 4