Pulse modulation
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Pulse modulation is a technique used to transmit analog information by sampling continuous signals at regular intervals and transmitting the signal as a series of pulses. There are two main types of pulse modulation: analog and digital. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the simplest form of pulse modulation, where each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the original signal at the time of sampling. PAM follows the amplitude of the original signal and can reconstruct the signal through a low pass filter. It is easy to generate and demodulate PAM but requires a large bandwidth and more noise compared to other techniques.
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Differential pulse code modulation
Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) is a technique that encodes analog signals digitally by sampling the signal, predicting the next sample value based on previous samples, quantizing the difference between the actual and predicted values, and transmitting the quantized difference. DPCM reduces the required transmission bandwidth compared to standard PCM by exploiting the fact that differences between successive samples are typically smaller than the sample amplitudes themselves. It works by quantizing and transmitting the differences between actual and predicted sample values rather than directly quantizing the sample amplitudes.
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1) Analog to digital conversion involves sampling, quantizing, and encoding an analog signal to represent it as discrete digital values. Pulse code modulation is the most common technique which uses a low pass filter, sampler, and encoder.
2) Digital to analog conversion reconstructs the analog signal from discrete digital values using techniques like amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying that modulate properties of a carrier signal.
3) A wireless sensor network is an ad hoc network of sensors that monitor physical conditions and communicate wirelessly, enabling applications in areas like environmental monitoring and healthcare. Challenges include energy efficiency, security, and coping with node failures.
Pulse amplitude modulation & demodulation
This lab covers pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation. Students will modulate a pulse train with a modulating signal and observe the output waveform. They will also demodulate the modulated signal and measure the recovered modulating signal. The objectives are to learn how to perform PAM modulation and demodulation and calculate the modulation index. The hardware required includes transistors, integrated circuits, resistors, capacitors, an oscilloscope, and pulse generator. The theory section describes how PAM works by varying the amplitude of pulses based on the modulating signal. Demodulation recovers the modulating signal using a low pass filter. Students will set up the modulation and demodulation circuits, take readings, and answer post-lab questions.
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DIGITALModulation.pptx "Advanced Digital Modulation Techniques"
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This document summarizes line coding, which is the process of converting digital data to digital signals for transmission. It discusses how digital data in the form of text, numbers, images, audio or video are stored as bit sequences in computer memory. Line coding converts these bit sequences into digital signals for transmission, and decoding reconstructs the digital data at the receiver. Some key properties and characteristics of line coding that help efficient transmission are reduced bandwidth usage, efficient power use, error detection and correction capabilities, and avoidance of long strings of 1s and 0s. Specific line coding techniques like NRZ-L, NRZ-I and Differential Manchester are also outlined.
Block diagram of digital communication
This document provides an overview of digital communication, including:
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2) The basic elements of a digital communication system are described, including the source, transducers, modulators, channel, demodulators, decoders, and output.
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Adaptive differential pcm
Adaptive differential PCM (ADPCM) is a method that overcomes disadvantages of delta modulation by allowing the step size to vary automatically based on the error between the input and output signals. This helps eliminate slope overload and hunting issues. ADPCM provides bandwidth compression, requires less power for transmission than normal digital communication, and eliminates synchronization problems by not needing start/stop bits. However, the receiver must adapt step sizes identically to the transmitter for accurate reproduction of the signal.
Eye pattern
The eye pattern is a simple way to measure intersymbol interference (ISI) and noise in a signal. It is generated by overlapping each signal element in a system, such as a binary system. An eye pattern is often used to monitor the performance of baseband signals. A high signal-to-noise ratio will result in an eye pattern where the best time to sample is when the eye opening is largest, the maximum distortion and ISI are indicated by the vertical width at sampling time, the noise margin is proportional to the width of the eye opening, and the sensitivity to timing errors is determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the sampling time is varied.
Comparison of qam and psk
QAM and PSK are two common digital modulation techniques. QAM encodes data by changing the amplitude and phase of carrier waves, allowing for faster data transmission over the same bandwidth compared to PSK which only changes phase. However, PSK is more robust to noise and interference than QAM, making it preferable for noisier communication channels.
Pn sequence
Pseudo-random numbers are statistically random values that are derived from a known starting point and can be repeated. They are useful for processes that require randomness. PN sequences are generated using a linear feedback shift-register circuit with M registers. At each clock pulse, the data shifts one position and a PN datum is output from the last register. The sequence is defined by a generator polynomial where the coefficients determine which registers are used to generate the next value. Autocorrelation and cross-correlation can be used to measure the similarity between a time series and lagged or shifted versions of itself.
Spread spectrum
Spread spectrum is a technique used in communication systems to spread the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, making it more resistant to interference and harder to intercept. There are three main types of spread spectrum: direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), and time hopping spread spectrum (THSS). DSSS spreads the signal by multiplying it with a pseudo-random code before transmission. FHSS rapidly switches the carrier frequency according to a pseudo-random sequence. THSS transmits signal bursts in pseudo-random time slots within a frame. Spread spectrum provides advantages like interference rejection, multipath immunity, multiple access, and secure communication.
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The 8086 has several pins and signals that facilitate its operation and communication with external devices:
- It uses a 5V DC power supply and clock signal for timing. The address/data and address/status buses are used to transmit addresses and data.
- Additional control signals include READ, READY, RESET, INTR, NMI, TEST, MN/MX, INTA, ALE, DEN, DT/R, M/IO, WR, HLDA, HOLD, QS1, QS0, S0-S2, and LOCK to manage interrupts, I/O, memory access, and bus control.
- The status pins QS1, QS0 and S0-S
System bus timing 8086
The document summarizes the timing of the system bus for the 8086 microprocessor. It describes that a machine cycle consists of at least four clock periods called T1, T2, T3, and T4. For a read bus cycle, the address is sent out in T1, read/write signals appear in T2 along with data for a write, T3 can be a wait state if ready is low, and data is sampled in T4. A write bus cycle outputs the address in T1, data in T2, and a write signal to memory.
AM diode envelope demodulator
The document discusses the AM diode envelope detector. It describes how the diode detector detects the envelope of an AM signal using a diode and low-pass filter. The diode rectifies the signal, leaving only the positive or negative half. The filter then removes the high frequencies, leaving an audio signal. While simple and low-cost, the diode detector introduces distortion and has limited sensitivity. However, it remained widely used in radios due to its convenience and low price.
Byte and string manipulation 8086
This document discusses string manipulation instructions in the 8086 microprocessor. It describes instructions such as REP, MOVS, CMPS, SCAS, LODS, and STOS. REP is a prefix that repeats string instructions until a condition is met. MOVS copies a byte or word from one memory location to another, adjusting indexes after each operation. CMPS compares bytes or words in strings. SCAS compares a string element to a register. LODS loads a string element into a register. STOS stores a register value into a string element memory location.
Interrupts of 8086
The document discusses interrupts of the 8086 processor. It covers polling and interrupt methods for responding to interrupts. The document provides information on the interrupt method for the 8086 processor and concludes by thanking the reader.
Super heterodyne receiver
The document discusses the components and operation of a super heterodyne receiver. It consists of 5 main stages: 1) an RF tuner section that selects the desired frequency, 2) a mixer that combines the received RF signal with a local oscillator signal to produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal, 3) an IF filter that eliminates unwanted frequencies and noise, 4) a demodulator that retrieves the original audio signal, and 5) an audio amplifier that strengthens the audio signal for output. The super heterodyne receiver overcomes drawbacks of ordinary receivers by translating all signals to a fixed IF for improved selectivity and sensitivity.
Pre emphasis and de-emphasis
Pre-emphasis refers to boosting higher audio frequencies between 2-15 kHz at the transmitter. De-emphasis means attenuating those same frequencies by the same amount at the receiver. This is done to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for FM reception. Both pre-emphasis and de-emphasis use either an RC or L/Z network with a time constant of 75 microseconds to boost then attenuate the higher frequencies.
Fm generation
The Armstrong method is an indirect method used to generate FM by using a phase modulator. It has two parts:
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2. Frequency multipliers and a mixer are used to increase the carrier frequency and modulation index of the narrowband FM wave to desired values for broadcast applications. This makes the Armstrong method suitable for broadcast purposes where direct methods using unstable LC oscillators cannot be used.
Fm demodulation using zero crossing detector
This document discusses FM demodulation using a zero crossing detector. It contains a block diagram of a zero crossing detector system consisting of a zero crossing detector, pulse generator, DC block, and low pass filter. It explains that the zero crossing detector operates by measuring the time difference between adjacent zero crossings of the FM wave, which is related to the instantaneous frequency and can be used to recover the message signal. It notes the advantages and disadvantages of this technique.
FM demodulation using PLL
The document discusses FM demodulation using a phase-locked loop (PLL). A PLL consists of a phase detector, loop filter, and voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) connected in a feedback loop. It works by using the phase detector to compare the input signal frequency to the VCO output frequency. Any difference or error signal is fed through the loop filter to control the VCO frequency, adjusting it until the two frequencies are synchronized and phase-locked. In this way, a PLL can track the frequency and phase of an incoming FM signal to demodulate it.
VSB
Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation is a technique that is a compromise between double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) and single sideband (SSB) modulation. In VSB, one sideband is transmitted completely and the other sideband (called the vestigial sideband) is only partially transmitted. This allows for more efficient use of bandwidth than DSB-SC while avoiding some of the information loss that can occur with practical SSB filters. VSB modulation is commonly used for television signal transmission because it provides a good balance between bandwidth usage and demodulation complexity.
Speed control of dc motor
The document discusses speed control methods for DC motors. It explains that the speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the back EMF and inversely proportional to flux. For shunt motors, speed can be controlled through flux control by adding resistance in the field winding, or through armature control by adding resistance in series with the armature. For series motors, speed is controlled through flux control using field or armature diverters or tapped field control, or through armature resistance control. Ward-Leonard control provides sensitive speed control for applications like elevators.
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The document discusses DC generators. It begins by defining a generator as a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, noting there are DC and AC types. It then focuses on DC generators, explaining they convert mechanical energy directly to DC electrical energy. The key parts of a DC generator are described as the yoke, poles, field winding, armature, commutator, brushes and bearings. It concludes by explaining DC generators work based on Faraday's law of induction, converting the mechanical rotation of the armature within the magnetic field into a DC current via the commutator.
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Pulse modulation
- 1. PULSE MODULATION UNIT – 2 Presented By Mrs. M.P.Sasirekha
- 2. PULSE MODULATION • Pulse modulation is a type of modulation in which the signal is transmitted in the form of pulses. It can be used to transmit analogue information. In pulse modulation, continuous signals are sampled at regular intervals. • Pulse modulation can be classified into two major types. • Analogue: Indication of sample amplitude is infinitely variable • Digital: Indicates sample amplitude at the nearest predetermined level.
- 3. PULSE MODULATION • A block diagram showing the basic classification of modulation techniques is given below.
- 4. SAMPLING
- 7. PAM
- 8. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) • It is the simplest form of Pulse Modulation. • In this type of modulation, each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling. • The PAM signal follows the amplitude of the original signal, as the signal traces out the path of the whole wave. • Here a signal which is sampled at Nyquist rate can be reconstructed by passing it through an efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cutoff frequency. • It is very easy to generate and demodulate PAM. • This technique transmits the data by encoding in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.
- 9. Types of PAM • There are two types of PAM. 1.Single Polarity PAM: A fixed DC level is added to the signal so that the signal is always positive. 2.Double Polarity PAM: Here the pulses are both positive and negative.
- 11. PAM • it is clear that the pulse amplitude modulated signal is following the amplitude of the message signal. • Advantages of PAM • Both Modulation and demodulation are simple. • Easy construction of transmitter and receiver circuits. • Disadvantages of PAM • Large bandwidth is required for transmission. • More noise. • Here the amplitude is varying. Therefore, the power required will be more.
- 12. PAM • Applications of PAM • Mainly used in Ethernet communication. • Many microcontrollers use this technique in order to generate control signals. • It is used in Photo-biology. • It acts as an electronic driver for LED circuits.