A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and Intel 8008 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several important processors throughout history like the Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Intel 8086, and Motorola 68000. It also provides details about the Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor, including its architecture, registers, signals, and features. The evolution has progressed from dedicated controllers to general purpose CPUs with increasing bits, speed, memory capacity, and functionality.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers both have CPUs and are used for real-time applications, but they differ in key ways. Microprocessors are standalone chips that require external memory and I/O devices, have higher clock speeds, and are more versatile. Microcontrollers integrate CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip, have lower clock speeds, and are cheaper and used for embedded systems. The 8085 was an early 8-bit microprocessor from Intel that had 40 pins, accessed 64KB of memory, and was used in early PCs and instruments.
This document is a student's report on the history of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models. It outlines the major microprocessor models released by Intel from the 4004 in 1971 to the current multi-core 64-bit Core i7 models. For each generation of processors, details are given on specifications like clock speed, transistor count, cache memory and capabilities. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of microprocessor technology and performance over decades.
A presentation on Evaluation of MicroprocessorShah Imtiyaj
This presentation summarizes the historical background of several major microprocessor companies, including Intel, IBM, AMD, and MIPS Technology. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 to more advanced 8-bit and 64-bit processors. For each company, it outlines some of the most notable microprocessor models released over the years, along with key details about their specifications and impact. The presentation concludes that the microprocessor has transformed computing and undergone rapid advancement from its initial conception to today's high-powered multiprocessor systems.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and Intel 8008 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several important processors throughout history like the Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Intel 8086, and Motorola 68000. It also provides details about the Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor, including its architecture, registers, signals, and features. The evolution has progressed from dedicated controllers to general purpose CPUs with increasing bits, speed, memory capacity, and functionality.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers both have CPUs and are used for real-time applications, but they differ in key ways. Microprocessors are standalone chips that require external memory and I/O devices, have higher clock speeds, and are more versatile. Microcontrollers integrate CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip, have lower clock speeds, and are cheaper and used for embedded systems. The 8085 was an early 8-bit microprocessor from Intel that had 40 pins, accessed 64KB of memory, and was used in early PCs and instruments.
This document is a student's report on the history of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models. It outlines the major microprocessor models released by Intel from the 4004 in 1971 to the current multi-core 64-bit Core i7 models. For each generation of processors, details are given on specifications like clock speed, transistor count, cache memory and capabilities. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of microprocessor technology and performance over decades.
A presentation on Evaluation of MicroprocessorShah Imtiyaj
This presentation summarizes the historical background of several major microprocessor companies, including Intel, IBM, AMD, and MIPS Technology. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 to more advanced 8-bit and 64-bit processors. For each company, it outlines some of the most notable microprocessor models released over the years, along with key details about their specifications and impact. The presentation concludes that the microprocessor has transformed computing and undergone rapid advancement from its initial conception to today's high-powered multiprocessor systems.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The document summarizes the five generations of microprocessor development from 1971 to the present. It discusses the major microprocessors from each generation, including their specifications and technologies. The first generation in the 1970s included 4-bit and 8-bit processors from Intel and other companies. The second generation saw the rise of 8-bit processors. The third generation was dominated by 16-bit processors. The fourth generation introduced 32-bit processors, and the fifth generation included 64-bit processors and dual/quad-core CPUs with improved speeds and functionality. Key Intel processors from each generation are described in detail across multiple slides.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The Intel 4004 was the first commercially available microprocessor. It contained 2,300 transistors and integrated the central processing unit, memory, and input/output controls onto a single chip for the first time. The 4004 had a maximum clock speed of 740 kHz and could perform between 46,300 to 92,600 instructions per second. It used a 4-bit architecture with instructions and data transferred over a single multiplexed bus.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors across five generations from 1971 to present. It describes the key developments including the first microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1971 called the 4004. Subsequent generations saw the development of 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors using newer technologies that improved speed and density. The fifth generation is dominated by Intel processors like Pentium and multi-core CPUs that can exceed speeds of 1GHz.
EE6502 Microprocessors and MicrocontrollersSanthosh Kumar
This document contains question banks for the microprocessors and microcontrollers course. It includes questions about the 8085 and 8051 microprocessors as well as their peripherals. The questions cover topics like architecture, instruction sets, interfacing techniques and applications. The questions are divided into multiple parts with short answer and long descriptive questions. This document acts as a reference for students to prepare for exams on microprocessors and microcontrollers.
Presentation on History of Microcontroller(Updated - 2)ALPESH MARU
The document provides a history of microcontrollers beginning with the development of the first microprocessor by Intel in the early 1970s. It then discusses how Texas Instruments engineer Gary Boone developed the first single-chip microcontroller called the TMS1802NC in the early 1970s. The document outlines some of the key developments in microcontrollers over subsequent decades, including Intel's 8048 and 8051 microcontrollers, the introduction of EEPROM and flash memory technologies, and modern microcontrollers used in various applications today.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to present. It discusses each generation from the 4004 (4-bit) to the latest Intel i7 processors. Key details provided on each generation include the year of introduction, processing capabilities, memory capacity, and technological improvements over previous versions. The document shows how Intel microprocessors have progressed from 4-bit to 32-bit and 64-bit capabilities, with increasing speeds, memory capacity, and additional features with each new generation.
The document provides an overview of the 8051 microcontroller, including its features, applications, evolution, and architecture. Specifically, it discusses the 8051's 4K bytes of ROM, 128 bytes of RAM, four 8-bit I/O ports, two 16-bit timers, serial interface, and 64K external memory spaces. It also describes the 8051's registers, memory mapping, ports, timers/counters, and interrupt system. The document traces the evolution of microcontrollers from the Motorola 6801 in 1976 to modern 32-bit ARM and Intel processors used in devices like mobile phones.
This document contains questions and answers related to embedded systems. It covers topics like introduction to embedded systems, processor and memory management, devices and buses for device networks, and I/O programming and scheduling mechanisms.
Some key points covered include definitions of embedded systems, microcontrollers and their components; classifications of embedded systems; memory types; processor architecture; communication protocols like I2C and CAN; parallel and serial interfaces; scheduling concepts like tasks, threads, interrupts, semaphores and mutex; and programming languages for embedded systems like C and Java.
Detailed explanations are required for concepts like structural units of a processor, cache mapping techniques, memory mapping, DMA operation, timer devices, communication buses, I/O
This document provides an introduction to embedded systems. It defines embedded systems as electronic systems that perform dedicated tasks and include microcontrollers. Characteristics of embedded systems include high speed, low power consumption, small size, accuracy, adaptability, and reliability. Embedded systems are classified based on their functionality and performance requirements. The document also discusses the hardware architecture of embedded systems including the CPU, memory, I/O ports, communication interfaces, and application-specific circuitry. Recent trends in embedded systems include faster processors, lower power consumption, improved communication interfaces, new operating systems, and programming languages.
The document traces the evolution of microprocessors from the early 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to the 64-bit MIPS R4000 in 1991. It describes the key innovations of each generation including increased bit width, transistor count, and performance. The first generation from 1971-1978 had processors with less than 50k transistors and under 50k instructions per second. The second generation from 1979-1985 saw the introduction of 32-bit processors with over 50k transistors. The third generation from 1985-1989 included reduced instruction set computers with over 100k transistors. The fourth generation from 1990 onward introduced 64-bit architectures with over 1 million transistors and performance leadership.
This document traces the evolution of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models over several decades. It discusses early microprocessors developed by Intel and other companies, including the 4004 (4-bit, 1971), the 8008 and 8080 (8-bit, 1972 and 1974), the 8086 and 8088 (16-bit, 1978 and 1979), the 80386 (32-bit, 1985), and the introduction of 64-bit processors in the 2000s. Each new generation brought increased processing power, through higher bit sizes, clock speeds, transistor counts and features like caches and multicore designs.
The document summarizes the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 1999. It describes key microprocessors including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8088, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Celeron. With each generation, transistors increased and features improved to enable more powerful personal computing. The Intel microprocessors established Intel as the dominant force in the PC market and fueled the growth of the personal computer industry.
Case study on Intel core i3 processor. Mauryasuraj98
The document discusses the Intel Core i3 processor. It provides a history of Intel processors beginning in the 1940s. Key details include that Core i3 processors are multi-core, have integrated graphics, and allow for improved multi-tasking compared to earlier Intel processors. The document outlines features and specifications of Core i3 processors such as clock speed, cache size, and graphics capabilities. It describes applications and advantages such as improved performance but also notes some disadvantages like potential overheating.
This document provides an introduction to the 8085 microprocessor. It discusses the basic concepts of microprocessors including the internal components of a microprocessor like the ALU and control unit. It describes the different parts of the 8085 architecture like the accumulator, registers, flags, and arithmetic logic unit. It also explains the addressing modes, instruction set, and interrupts of the 8085 microprocessor. Various instructions of the 8085 like data transfer, arithmetic, and logic instructions are discussed along with examples.
The document provides a brief history of Intel processors from 1971 to 2000. It summarizes each processor model, highlighting key specs and their impact. The 4004 was Intel's first microprocessor, powering calculators. The 8008 was twice as powerful. The 8080 was used in the Altair, inspiring the PC revolution. The 8088 powered the IBM PC. Later chips like the 286, 386, and 486 added more power and capabilities. The Pentium brought multimedia and became a household name. Advances continued with models like the Celeron, Xeon, and Pentium 4, bringing more performance for applications like video and internet use.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several key processors throughout history like the Intel 8085, an 8-bit processor that was popular in the late 1970s/early 1980s. The document also provides details on the architecture and features of the Intel 8085 microprocessor, including its registers, ALU, address and data buses, instruction set, and interrupt handling capabilities.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
This document provides information about microcontrollers and the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It begins with definitions of microprocessors and microcontrollers, distinguishing that microcontrollers contain memory and I/O ports on a single chip. The Intel 8051 microcontroller is then described in detail, including its architecture, features such as 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of RAM, and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers are explained. Finally, the architecture and features of the 8051 like registers, program counter, and stack are outlined.
This document provides information about microcontrollers and the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It begins with definitions of microprocessors and microcontrollers, distinguishing that microcontrollers contain memory and I/O ports on a single chip. The Intel 8051 microcontroller is then described in detail, including its architecture, features such as 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of RAM, and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers are explained. Finally, the architecture and features of the 8051 like registers, program counter, and stack are outlined.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The document summarizes the five generations of microprocessor development from 1971 to the present. It discusses the major microprocessors from each generation, including their specifications and technologies. The first generation in the 1970s included 4-bit and 8-bit processors from Intel and other companies. The second generation saw the rise of 8-bit processors. The third generation was dominated by 16-bit processors. The fourth generation introduced 32-bit processors, and the fifth generation included 64-bit processors and dual/quad-core CPUs with improved speeds and functionality. Key Intel processors from each generation are described in detail across multiple slides.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The Intel 4004 was the first commercially available microprocessor. It contained 2,300 transistors and integrated the central processing unit, memory, and input/output controls onto a single chip for the first time. The 4004 had a maximum clock speed of 740 kHz and could perform between 46,300 to 92,600 instructions per second. It used a 4-bit architecture with instructions and data transferred over a single multiplexed bus.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors across five generations from 1971 to present. It describes the key developments including the first microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1971 called the 4004. Subsequent generations saw the development of 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors using newer technologies that improved speed and density. The fifth generation is dominated by Intel processors like Pentium and multi-core CPUs that can exceed speeds of 1GHz.
EE6502 Microprocessors and MicrocontrollersSanthosh Kumar
This document contains question banks for the microprocessors and microcontrollers course. It includes questions about the 8085 and 8051 microprocessors as well as their peripherals. The questions cover topics like architecture, instruction sets, interfacing techniques and applications. The questions are divided into multiple parts with short answer and long descriptive questions. This document acts as a reference for students to prepare for exams on microprocessors and microcontrollers.
Presentation on History of Microcontroller(Updated - 2)ALPESH MARU
The document provides a history of microcontrollers beginning with the development of the first microprocessor by Intel in the early 1970s. It then discusses how Texas Instruments engineer Gary Boone developed the first single-chip microcontroller called the TMS1802NC in the early 1970s. The document outlines some of the key developments in microcontrollers over subsequent decades, including Intel's 8048 and 8051 microcontrollers, the introduction of EEPROM and flash memory technologies, and modern microcontrollers used in various applications today.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to present. It discusses each generation from the 4004 (4-bit) to the latest Intel i7 processors. Key details provided on each generation include the year of introduction, processing capabilities, memory capacity, and technological improvements over previous versions. The document shows how Intel microprocessors have progressed from 4-bit to 32-bit and 64-bit capabilities, with increasing speeds, memory capacity, and additional features with each new generation.
The document provides an overview of the 8051 microcontroller, including its features, applications, evolution, and architecture. Specifically, it discusses the 8051's 4K bytes of ROM, 128 bytes of RAM, four 8-bit I/O ports, two 16-bit timers, serial interface, and 64K external memory spaces. It also describes the 8051's registers, memory mapping, ports, timers/counters, and interrupt system. The document traces the evolution of microcontrollers from the Motorola 6801 in 1976 to modern 32-bit ARM and Intel processors used in devices like mobile phones.
This document contains questions and answers related to embedded systems. It covers topics like introduction to embedded systems, processor and memory management, devices and buses for device networks, and I/O programming and scheduling mechanisms.
Some key points covered include definitions of embedded systems, microcontrollers and their components; classifications of embedded systems; memory types; processor architecture; communication protocols like I2C and CAN; parallel and serial interfaces; scheduling concepts like tasks, threads, interrupts, semaphores and mutex; and programming languages for embedded systems like C and Java.
Detailed explanations are required for concepts like structural units of a processor, cache mapping techniques, memory mapping, DMA operation, timer devices, communication buses, I/O
This document provides an introduction to embedded systems. It defines embedded systems as electronic systems that perform dedicated tasks and include microcontrollers. Characteristics of embedded systems include high speed, low power consumption, small size, accuracy, adaptability, and reliability. Embedded systems are classified based on their functionality and performance requirements. The document also discusses the hardware architecture of embedded systems including the CPU, memory, I/O ports, communication interfaces, and application-specific circuitry. Recent trends in embedded systems include faster processors, lower power consumption, improved communication interfaces, new operating systems, and programming languages.
The document traces the evolution of microprocessors from the early 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to the 64-bit MIPS R4000 in 1991. It describes the key innovations of each generation including increased bit width, transistor count, and performance. The first generation from 1971-1978 had processors with less than 50k transistors and under 50k instructions per second. The second generation from 1979-1985 saw the introduction of 32-bit processors with over 50k transistors. The third generation from 1985-1989 included reduced instruction set computers with over 100k transistors. The fourth generation from 1990 onward introduced 64-bit architectures with over 1 million transistors and performance leadership.
This document traces the evolution of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models over several decades. It discusses early microprocessors developed by Intel and other companies, including the 4004 (4-bit, 1971), the 8008 and 8080 (8-bit, 1972 and 1974), the 8086 and 8088 (16-bit, 1978 and 1979), the 80386 (32-bit, 1985), and the introduction of 64-bit processors in the 2000s. Each new generation brought increased processing power, through higher bit sizes, clock speeds, transistor counts and features like caches and multicore designs.
The document summarizes the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 1999. It describes key microprocessors including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8088, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Celeron. With each generation, transistors increased and features improved to enable more powerful personal computing. The Intel microprocessors established Intel as the dominant force in the PC market and fueled the growth of the personal computer industry.
Case study on Intel core i3 processor. Mauryasuraj98
The document discusses the Intel Core i3 processor. It provides a history of Intel processors beginning in the 1940s. Key details include that Core i3 processors are multi-core, have integrated graphics, and allow for improved multi-tasking compared to earlier Intel processors. The document outlines features and specifications of Core i3 processors such as clock speed, cache size, and graphics capabilities. It describes applications and advantages such as improved performance but also notes some disadvantages like potential overheating.
This document provides an introduction to the 8085 microprocessor. It discusses the basic concepts of microprocessors including the internal components of a microprocessor like the ALU and control unit. It describes the different parts of the 8085 architecture like the accumulator, registers, flags, and arithmetic logic unit. It also explains the addressing modes, instruction set, and interrupts of the 8085 microprocessor. Various instructions of the 8085 like data transfer, arithmetic, and logic instructions are discussed along with examples.
The document provides a brief history of Intel processors from 1971 to 2000. It summarizes each processor model, highlighting key specs and their impact. The 4004 was Intel's first microprocessor, powering calculators. The 8008 was twice as powerful. The 8080 was used in the Altair, inspiring the PC revolution. The 8088 powered the IBM PC. Later chips like the 286, 386, and 486 added more power and capabilities. The Pentium brought multimedia and became a household name. Advances continued with models like the Celeron, Xeon, and Pentium 4, bringing more performance for applications like video and internet use.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several key processors throughout history like the Intel 8085, an 8-bit processor that was popular in the late 1970s/early 1980s. The document also provides details on the architecture and features of the Intel 8085 microprocessor, including its registers, ALU, address and data buses, instruction set, and interrupt handling capabilities.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
This document provides information about microcontrollers and the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It begins with definitions of microprocessors and microcontrollers, distinguishing that microcontrollers contain memory and I/O ports on a single chip. The Intel 8051 microcontroller is then described in detail, including its architecture, features such as 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of RAM, and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers are explained. Finally, the architecture and features of the 8051 like registers, program counter, and stack are outlined.
This document provides information about microcontrollers and the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It begins with definitions of microprocessors and microcontrollers, distinguishing that microcontrollers contain memory and I/O ports on a single chip. The Intel 8051 microcontroller is then described in detail, including its architecture, features such as 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of RAM, and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers are explained. Finally, the architecture and features of the 8051 like registers, program counter, and stack are outlined.
The document discusses the history and architecture of microprocessors. It begins with the earliest 4-bit microprocessor, the Intel 4004 from 1971. It then covers the development of 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and now modern 64-bit microprocessors. The core components of a microprocessor including the ALU, registers, and control unit are described. Specific examples like the Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor are explained in detail, including its architecture, registers, flags, and sample assembly language programs.
Introduction of Motorola microprocessors
Designers
Motorola microprocessor family
Motorola 6800 Microprocessor Family
Variations of 6800
Motorola 680x0 Microprocessor Family
Motorola PowerPC Family
Features of MC6800 Microprocessor
Memory of MC6800 Microprocessor
This document provides an introduction to microcomputers and microprocessors. It discusses how a microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU) of a microcomputer. A microcomputer system consists of a CPU (microprocessor), memory, and input/output devices connected by buses. The document then traces the evolution of microprocessors from the first 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to more advanced 32-bit and 64-bit processors over subsequent decades. It provides details on characteristics of important processors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium series. The document concludes with information on the internal structure of the Intel 8085 microprocessor.
This document provides an introduction to microprocessors. It defines a microprocessor as a CPU constructed on a single silicon chip. The document then discusses computer hardware components like the CPU and memory. It also outlines some common microprocessor families that are featured in the textbook like the 6502, 6800, 8080/8085/Z80, and 8086/8088. Finally, it mentions some ways to access microprocessors like using computers, microprocessor trainers, and software emulation programs.
The document traces the history and development of microprocessors from 1971 to the present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor released in 1971. Important subsequent microprocessors included the Intel 8080 in 1974 and 8085 in 1977. The Pentium brand was introduced in 1993 and included 64-bit x86 instruction sets. The Core 2 brand from 2006 featured single, dual, and quad-core processors. The document also provides basic explanations of how microprocessors work and their components like the ALU, registers, and control unit.
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The document provides an overview of microprocessors and the Intel 8085 microprocessor. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit designs to modern 32-bit and 64-bit designs. It then describes the key components and architecture of the Intel 8085, an early 8-bit microprocessor, including its 40-pin interface, address bus, data bus, registers, arithmetic logic unit, and interrupt controls. Finally, it provides a functional block diagram of the 8085, highlighting its main components like the ALU, registers, instruction decoder, and interrupt controls.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of microprocessors. It discusses how the invention of the transistor led to the development of integrated circuits and eventually microprocessors. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 designed in 1971. This began the shift to smaller and more affordable personal computers. The document then discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, including its arithmetic logic unit, registers, buses, and classification based on data width and application.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
The document summarizes the evolution of several important Intel microprocessors from 1971 to the 1980s. It describes the key specifications and innovations of the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086/8088, 80286, 80386, and 80486 microprocessors, including their transistor counts, data bus widths, addressing capabilities, and the introduction of features like protected mode, virtual memory management, 32-bit registers and operands, and paging. Overall, it traces the progression from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors to later 16-bit and 32-bit designs with increasing performance, memory addressing, and instruction sets.
The document provides information about various 8-bit microcontrollers including the 8051, PIC, and AVR families. It discusses the original 8051 microcontroller released by Intel in 1981 and its features. It then summarizes the different members of the 8051 family and versions produced by other manufacturers like Atmel. The document also summarizes the different series within the PIC family from Microchip including the baseline, mid-range, enhanced mid-range, and PIC18 architectures. Finally, it discusses the AVR architecture from Atmel and provides details on the tinyAVR, megaAVR, and XmegaAVR families.
The document discusses the history and features of the 8051 microcontroller family. It specifically focuses on the AT89S52 microcontroller, which was introduced by Atmel in the 1980s. Key points include:
- The AT89S52 has 8K bytes of Flash memory, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, timers, serial port, and interrupts. It is compatible with the 8051 instruction set.
- It operates from 0-33MHz and has various power saving modes. It has features like watchdog timer, dual data pointers, and ISP programming.
- The document discusses the advantages of using a microcontroller over a microprocessor for embedded applications in terms of cost, size
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors, including:
- A microprocessor is an integrated circuit containing millions of transistors that can process data according to programmed instructions. Examples include Intel, AMD, and PowerPC processors.
- The three basic functions of a microprocessor are to fetch instructions from memory, decode what the instructions mean, and execute the instructions.
- Key components include the ALU for arithmetic/logic operations, control unit for flow control, and registers for temporary storage.
- Early Intel processors included the 4-bit 4004 and 8-bit 8008, while the 16-bit 8086 was the first in the x86 architecture still used today.
The document provides an introduction to microcontrollers, specifically focusing on the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It defines microcontrollers and distinguishes them from microprocessors by noting that microcontrollers contain peripherals like RAM, ROM, I/O ports and timers on a single chip, while microprocessors require external circuitry. It then describes the architecture and features of the Intel 8051 microcontroller, including its 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of data memory, 32 general purpose registers, two timers, interrupts and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers/simulators are also discussed.
The third generation of microprocessors were introduced in 1978 and represented by Intel's 8086 and Zilog Z8000 processors. These were 16-bit processors that offered mini-computer like performance. All major workstation manufacturers also began developing their own RISC-based microprocessor architectures during this time. Key features of the 8086 included a 16-bit architecture, support for up to 1MB of memory, and segmented memory addressing. The 8086 established itself as the processor standard and was further developed into the 80186 and 80286 processors.
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Chances are you have a Wi-Fi network at home, or live close to one (or more) that tantalizingly pops up in a list whenever you boot up the laptop.
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A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together.
There are two methods for interfacing memory and I/O devices with a microprocessor: I/O mapped I/O and memory mapped I/O. I/O mapped I/O treats I/O devices and memory separately, while memory mapped I/O treats I/O devices as memory. I/O mapped I/O can use either 8 or 16 address lines, allowing connection of up to 256 fixed I/O devices or 65,536 variable I/O devices. Specific instructions like IN, OUT, and MOV are used to access I/O ports depending on whether it is fixed or variable addressing.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together.
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A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together.
Procedures and macros allow code to be reused in assembly language programs. Procedures are subroutines that are called using CALL and RET instructions. Macros allow short, repetitive code sequences to be defined once and reused by replacing the macro call with its body code. Some key differences are that procedures occupy less memory than macros since macro code is generated each time, while procedures' code is only stored once. Procedures are accessed using CALL while macros are accessed by name.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
This document describes the Jcc family of conditional jump instructions in x86 assembly language. It provides the instruction name, description of the condition tested, and any alternative mnemonics or opposite instructions. The instructions test various CPU flags like carry, zero, sign, overflow, parity, and compare values based on signed or unsigned arithmetic.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
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Agile Methodology: Before Agile – Waterfall, Agile Development.
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Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
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- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
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- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
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- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
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- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
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- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
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Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
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https://www.leewayhertz.com/generative-ai-use-cases-and-applications/
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Many lives could have been saved if emergency service could get accident information and
reach in time. Our project will provide an optimum solution to this draw back. A piezo electric
sensor can be used as a crash or rollover detector of the vehicle during and after a crash. With
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project when a vehicle meets with an accident immediately piezo electric sensor will detect the
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1. MICROPROCESSORS AND ITS APPLIATIONS
Descriptive Answers (in detail)
1. Explain the Evolution of Microprocessors.
Microprocessor :
Microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven,
register based electronic device that reads binary instructions from a
storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and
processes data according to those instructions, and provides as output.
A common way of categorizing microprocessors is by the number of
bits that their ALU can work time. In other words. a microprocessor with a
4. bit will be referred to as a 4-bit microprocessor, regardless of the number
of address lines or the number of data bus lines that it has.
Intel 4004 :
The first commercially available microprocessor was the Intel 4004.
produced in 1971. It contained 2300 PMOS transistors. The
4004~was a 4 bit device intended to be used with some other devices
in making a calculator. Some logic designers, however saw that this
device could be used to replace PC boards full of combinational and
sequential logic devices. Also the ability to change the function of a
system by just changing the programming. rather than redesigning
the hardware. is very appealing.
Intel 8008 :
In 1972 Intel came out with the 8008. which was capable of
working with 8-bit words. The 8008,however required 20 or more
additional devices to form a functional CPU.
Intel 8080 :
In 1974 Intel announced the 8080. which had a much larger
instruction set than the 8008 and required only two additional
devices to form a functional CPU. Also. the 8080 used NMOS
transistors. so it operated much faster than the 8008. The 8080 is
referred to as a second-generation microprocessor. It reqires +12
V power supply.
Motorola MC6800
Soon after Intel produced the 8080. Motorola came out with the
MC6800. another 8-bit general-purpose CPU. The 6800 had the
advantage that it required only a +5-V supply rather than the -5-V.
+5-V. and + 12V supplies required by the 8080.
2. For several years the 8080 and the 6800 were the top-selling 8-
bit microprocessors. Some of their competitors were the MOS
Technology 6502. used as the CPU in the Apple II microcom-
puter. and. the Zilog Z80. used as the CPU in the Radio Shack
TRS~O microcomputer.
Three major directions of microprocessor Evolutions are
(i) Dedicated or Embedded Controllers
(ii) Bit Slice Processors
(iii) General purpose CPUs
(i) Dedicated or Embedded Controllers:
One direction has been dedicated or embedded controllers. These
devices are used to control "smart" machines. such as microwave
ovens. clothes washers. sewing machines. auto ignition systems.
and metal lathes.
Texas Instruments has produced millions of their TMS-1000
family of 4-bit microprocessors for this type of application.
In 1976 Intel introduced the 8048. which contains an 8-bit CPU.
RAM. ROM. and some I/O ports all in one 40-pin package. Other
manufacturers have followed with similar products. These devices
are often referred to as microcontrollers.
Some currently available devices in this category-the Intel 8051
and the Motorola MC6801.
A more recently introduced single chip microcontroller. the Intel
8096. contains a 16-bit CPU. ROM. RAM. a UART. ports. timers.
and a 10-bit analog-to-digital converter.
(ii) Bit Slice processors:
A second direction of microprocessor evolution has been bit-slice
processors. For some applications. general purpose CPUs such as
the 8080 and 6800 are not fast enough or do not have suitable
instruction sets. For these applications. several manufacturers
produce devices which can be used to build a custom CPU.
An example is the Advanced Micro Devices 2900 family of
devices. This family includes 4-bit ALUs. multiplexers. sequencers.
and other parts needed for custom-building a CPU. The term slice
comes from the fact that these parts can be connected in parallel to
work with 8-bit words, 16-bit words. or 32-bit words. In other
words. a designer can add as many slices as needed for a particu lar
application.
The designer not only custom-designs the hardware of the CPU,
but also custom-makes the instruction set for it using “microcode”.
3. (iii) General Purpose CPUs
The third major direction of microprocessor evolution has been
toward general-purpose CPUs which give a microcomputer most or
all of the computing power of earlier minicomputers.
Intel 8085 :
After Motorola came out with the MC6800. Intel produced
the 8085. an upgrade of the 8080 that required only a +5-V
supply.
Mototla MC 6809:
Motorola then produced the MC6809. which has a few 16-
bit instructions. but is still basically an 8-bit processor.
Intel 8086 :
In 1978 Intel came out with the 8086. which is a full 16bit
processor. Some 16-bit microprocessors. such as the
National PACE and the Texas Instruments 9900 family of
devices. had been available previously. but the market
apparently was not ready.
Motorola MC68000
Soon after Intel came out with the 8086. Motorola came out
with the 16-bit MC68000.
The 8086 and the 68000 work directly with 16-bit words instead
of with 8-bit words. they can address a million or more bytes of
memory instead of the 64 Kbytes addressable by the 8-bit
processors. and they execute instructions much faster than the 8-bit
processors. Also. these 16bit processors have single instructions for
functions such as.multiply and divtde. which required a lengthy
sequence of instructions on the 8-bit processors.
The evolution along this last path has continued on to 32-bit
processors that work with gigabytes (109 bytes) or terabytes (1012
bytes) of memory. Examples of these devices are the Intel 80386. the
Motorola MC68020, and the National 32032.
2. Explain 8 bit microprocessor in detail.
Some of the 8 bit Microprocessors are:
Intel 8008
Intel 8080A
Intel 8085
4. Motorola MC 6800
Zilog Z80
Hitachi HD64180
Intel 8008 :
In 1972 Intel came out with the 8008. which was capable of
working with 8-bit words. The 8008,however required 20 or
more additional devices to form a functional CPU. It was the
first 8 bit microprocessor.
Intel 8080A:
8080A is the predecessor of 8085. 8085 has the instruction set of
8080A plus some additional ones. Programs written for 8080A
will be executed by 8085. 8085 and 8080A are not pin
compatible.
Intel 8085:
It is capable addressing 64K of memory.
It is an enhanced version of its predecessor 8080A.
Its instruction set is upward compatible with that of
8080A.
The device has forty pins, requires a +5V single power
supply, and can operate with a 3-MHz single phase clock.
The 8085A-2 version can operate at the maximum
frequency of 5 MHz.
It has serial I/O ports viz. SID ( Serial Input port ) ,SOD
(serial Output port).
8085 is register oriented
It has 16 address lines and eight data lines.
Eight of its bus lines are multiplexed.
Motorola MC 6800
Manufactured by Motorola using N-channel MOS
technology
8080A and MC6800 were developed as improvements
over 8008
It has different architecture than its competitor, 8080A
It has 16 address lines and 8 data lines
It requires +5V power supply.
It has two interrupt lines, one is Regular interrupt, another
is Non maskable interrupt.
Instruction set includes 72 basic instructions.
No direct I/O instructions , it has only memory mapped
5. I/O
It has simple timing and control signals; the clock period
is the same as machine cycle.
Zilog Z80:
It is manufactured by Zilog using N-channel MOS
technology.
It is upward compatible with the 8080A.
Instruction set has 158 basic instructions, which include
8080 instrcution set. Zilog and Intel mnemonics are
different, but machine codes are identical.
It is not pin compatible with 8080A or 8085.
It dose not include two serial I/O instructions(RIM and
SIM)
It requires +5V power supply.
Clock frequency ranges from 4 MHz to 20 MHz.
It has 16 address lines and 8 data lines
Two interrupt Lines : One is compatible with 8080A
interrupt line, another is a maskable interrupt (NMI)
It uses on-board logic to refresh dynamic memories.
Instruction Set is the most powerful set among 8 bit
microprocessors.
It has an extensive set of I/O instructions that include
block I/O instructions and various modes of interrupts.
It is supported by peripheral devices such as parallel I/O,
DMA (Direct memory Access) and the Serial I/O.
Hitachi HD 64180:
It is 8 bit high integration CMOS microprocessor in a 64
pin package.
Designed for low power consumption
It can operate with 6 MHz clock.
It has 19 address lines , can address upto 512 KB of
memory .
It includes a clock generator, interrupt controller, memory
management (MMU) as support devices for the
microprocessor
MMU translates internal 64K logical addressing into
appropriate physical addressing.
It includes 4 I/O related devices.
DMA controller
Asynchronous Serial Communication Interface
Clocked Serial I/O port
6. Programmable Reload Timer
Instruction set is upward compatible with with Z80
instruction set.
It has additional instructions including 8 bit multiply and
sleep. The Sleep instruction reduces the power
consumption to 19 mW.
One of the powerful feature of this device is that the
opcode fetch cycle of an instruction consists of three T
states versus four T states in the Z80, resulting in faster
program execution.
Review of 8 bit Microprocessors
Architectures of 8085 and Z80 are register oriented.
Z80 has a larger instruction set than 8085 and its software
compatible with 8085 ,except for serial I/O instruction.
MC 6800 is memory reference oriented .It includes fewer
registers in its architecture than the 8085.
8 bit microprocessors are used in variety of applications
such as appliances, automobiles ,industrial process and
control applications.
8 bit microprocessor is too powerful in terms of its
capability.
3. (i) Explain the general features of microprocessors (Cost, Size etc.. )
?
ii) Compare the microprocessors in terms of Transistors used, clock
speed, Data Width and MIPS.
(i) Features:
Cost :
The cost per function goes on decreasing with the increasing
complexity of a chip. Volume of production is high. So, it is
responsible for the availability of microprocessor chips at fairley
low prices.
Size:
It is very small size. Because VLSI electronic circuitry has
become so dense that a tiny silicon chip can contain hundreds of
thousands of transistors constituting the microprocessors.
Power consumption:
Low power consumption. It is manufactured by metal-oxide semi
conductor (MOS) technology.
Versatility:
7. Versatility of microprocessor results from its ‘stored Program’
mode of operation. A microprocessor based system can be
configured for numerous applications by altering the software. It is
very flexible.
Reliability:
Reliability is high due to lower chip count in the system as
compared to its hardwired counter part.
(ii) Compare the microprocessors in terms of Transistors used, clock
speed, Data Width and MIPS.
Chip :
A chip is also called an integrated circuit. Generally it is a small, thin
piece of silicon onto which the transistors making up the
microprocessor have been etched. A chip might be as large as an inch
on a side and can contain tens of millions of transistors. Simpler
processors might consist of a few thousand transistors etched onto a
chip just a few millimeters square.
Date :
The date is the year that the processor was first introduced. Many
processors are re introduced at higher clock speeds for many years
after the original release Date.
Transistors :
Transistors is the number of transistors on the chip. We can see that
the number of transistors on a single chip has risen steadily over the
years.
Microns:
Microns is the width, in microns, of the smallest wire on the chip. For
comparison, a human hair is 100 microns thick. As the feature size on
the chip goes down, the number of transistors rises.
Clock Speed :
Clock speed is the maximum rate that the chip can be clocked at.
Data Width :
Data Width is the width of the ALD. An 8-bit ALU can
add/subtract/multiply/etc. two 8bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can
manipulate 32-bit numbers. An 8-bit ALU would have to execute four
instructions to add two 32-bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can do it
in one instruction. In many cases, the external data bus is the same
width as the ALU, but not always. The 8088 had a 16-bit ALU and an
8-bit bus, while the modem Pentiums fetch data 64 bits at a time for
their 32-bit ALUs.
MIPS :
MIPS stands for "millions of instructions per second" and is a rough
measure of the performance of a CPU. Modem CPUs can do so many
8. different things that MIPS ratings lose a lot of their meaning, but we
can get a general sense of the relative power of the CPUs from this
column.(from the table)
In general, there is a relationship between clock speed and MIPS.
The maximum clock speed is a function of the manufacturing process and
delays within the chip. There is also a relationship between the number of
transistors and MIPS. For example, the 8088 clocked at 5 MHz but only
executed at 0.33 MIPS (about one instruction per 15 clock cycles).
Modern processors can often execute at a rate of two instructions per
clock cycle. That improvement is directly related to the number of
transistors on the chip.
Name Date Transistors Microns Clock
Speed
Data
Width
MIPS
8080 1974 6000 6 2 MHZ 8 bits 0.64
8088 1979 29,000 3 5 MHZ 16 bits, 8
bit bus
0.33
80286 1982 1,34000 1.5 6 MHZ 16 bits 1
80386 1985 275,000 1.5 16 MHZ 32 bits 5
80486 1989 1,200,000 1 25 MHZ 32 bits 20
Pentium 1993 3,100,000 0.8 60 MHZ 32 bits,
64 bit
bus
100
Pentium
II
1997 7,500,000 0.35 233
MHZ
32 bits,6
4 bit bus
~300
Penium
III
1999 9,500,000 0.25 450
MHZ
32 bits ,
64 bit
bus
~510
Pentium
IV
2000 42,000,000 0.18 1.5
MHZ
32 bitx,
64 bit
bus
~1,700
4. With a neat diagram, explain the architecture of 8085
microprocessor. Discuss the functions of various signals in 8085?
The 8085 is an 8-bit general-purpose microprocessor capable of addressing
64K of memory.
9. The diagram shows the logic pin out of the 8085 microprocessor. All the
signals can be classified into six groups: (1) address bus, (2) data bus, (3)
control and status signals, (4) power supply and frequency signals, (5)
externally initiated signals, and (6) serial I/O ports
Address Bus
The 8085 has eight signal lines, AI5-A8, which are unidirectional and
used as the high-order address bus.
Multiplexed Address/Data bus
The signal lines AD7-ADo are bidirectional: they serve a dual
purpose. They are used as the low-order address bus as well as the data
bus. In executing an instruction, during the earlier part of the cycle,
these lines are used as the low-order address bus. During the later part
of the cycle, these lines are used as the data bus. (This is also known as
multiplexing the bus.) However, the low-order address bus can be
separated from these signals by using a latch.
Control and status signals
ALE-Address Latch Enable: This is a positive going pulse generated every time
the 8085 begins an operation (machine cycle); it indicates that the bits
on AD7-AD0 are address bits. This signal is used primarily to latch the
low-order address from the multiplexed bus and generate a separate set
of eight address lines, A7-A0.
RD-Read: This is a Read control signal (active low). This signal indicates that the
selected I/O or memory device is to be read and data are available on
the data bus.
WR-Write: This is a Write control signal (active low). This signal indicates that
the data on the data bus are to be written into a selected memory or I/O
location.
IO/M: This is a status signal used to differentiate between I/O and memory
operations. When it is high, it indicates an I/O operation. when it is low,
it indicates a memory operation. This signal is combined with RD
(Read) and WR (Write) to generate I/O and memory control signals.
S1 and S0: These status signals, similar to IO/M, can identify various operations.
Power supply and Clock Frequency :
V cc: +5 V power supply.
V ss: Ground Reference.
Xl, X2: A crystal (or RC, LC network) is connected at these two pins. The
frequency is internally divided by two; therefore, to operate a system
at 3 MHz, the crystal should have a frequency of 6 MHz.
CLK (OUT)-Clock Output: This signal can be used as the system clock for
10. other devices.
Externally Initiated Signals including Interrupts :
INTR (input) : Interrupt Request. It is used as a general purpose interrupt.
INTA (Output) : Interrupt Acknowledge It is used to acknowledge the
interrupt.
RST 7.5 (Inputs) : Restart Interrupts. These are vectored interrupts
that transfer the program control to specific memory locations. They
have higher priorities than the INTR interrupt. Among these three,
the priority order is 7.5,6.5,5.5.
TRAP (Input) : It is nonmaskable interrupt and has the highest priority.
HOLD(Input) : It indicates that a peripheral such as a DMA (Direct memory
Access) controller is requesting the use of the address and
data buses.
HLDA (Output) : Hold Acknowledge .It acknowledges the HOLD request.
READY(Input) : It is used to delay the microprocessor Read or write cycles
until a slow responding peripheral is ready to send or accept
data.
RESET IN : When the signal on this pin goes low, the program counter is
set to zero, the buses are tristated, and the MPU is reset.
RESET OUT: It indicates that the MPU is being reset.It can be used to reset
other devices.
Serial I/O ports:
8085 has two signals for serial transmission : SID(Serial Input Port),
SOD(Serial Output Port)
8085 Architecture
It includes the ALU (arithmetic /Logic Unit), Timing and Control Unit,
Instruction Register and Decoder, Register Array, Interrupt Control, and
Serial I/O Control.
ALU
The arithmetic and logic unit performs the computing functions; it includes
the accumulator, the temporary register, the arithmetic and logic circuits, and
five flags. The temporary register is used to hold data during an arithmetic
and logic operation. The result is stored in the accumulator, and the flags are
set or reset according to the result of the operation.
The flags are affected by the arithmetic and logic operations in the ALU.
The flags are :
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
S- Sign Flag . If D7 =1 , then sign flag is set, otherwise rest.
11. Z-Zero flag. If ALU operation results in zero, then this flag is set,
Otherwise it is reset.
AC-Auxilliary flag. In an arithmetic operation ,when a carry is
generated by digit D3 and passed on to digit D4, the
AC flag is set. Otherwise it is reset.
P-Parity Flag. If the result of an arithmetic or logic operation has an
even number of 1’s then this flag is set. Otherwise it
is reset.
CY-Carry Flag. If an arithmetic operation results in a carry, the carry
flag is set. Otherwise it is reset.
Among the five flags, the AC flag is used internally for BCD
arithmetic; the instruction set does not include any conditional jump
instructions based on the AC flag. Of the remaining four flags, the Z
and CY flags are those most commonly used.
Timing and Control Unit
This unit synchronizes all the microprocessor operations with the
clock and generates the control signals necessary for communication
between the microprocessor and peripherals.
The RD and WR signals are indicating the availability of data on
the data bus.
Instruction Register and Decoder.
The instruction register and the decoder are part of the ALU. When
an instruction is fetched from memory, it is loaded in the instruction
register. The decoder decodes the instruction and establishes the
sequence of events to follow. The instruction register is not
programmable and cannot be accessed through any instruction.
Register Array:
Two additional registers, called temporary registers W and Z, are
included in the register array. These registers are used to hold 8-bit
data during the execution of some instructions. However, because
they are used internally, they are not available to the programmer.
5. Explain the Applications of microprocessors.
i. Microcomputers
The simplest and cheapest general purpose microprocessor -based
systems are “single board microcomputers” with minimum possible
hardware & software configuration.
(a)In universities and educational institutions they are used for
imparting training to the students
12. (b)In industries, they are used for evaluation of the microprocessors
or for building systems prototype systems.
ii. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
It is commonly used in system where low power consumption is
necessary.
Examples: Watches, Calculators, Instrument panels and customer
electronic displays.
LCD Display consists of crystal material is arranged in segments or
in the form of a dot matrix. The crystal material can pass or block
the light that passes through; thus it creates a display.
iii. Matrix Keyboard :
It is a commonly used input device when more than 8 keys are
necessary. It reduces the number of interfacing devices are required.
It requires 8 lines from the microprocessor to make all the
connections instead of 16 lines, if the keys are connected in a linear
format.
When a key is pressed, it shorts one row and column. Otherwise, the
row and column do not have any connection. The interfacing of a
matrix keyboard requires 2 ports. (i) Output port (ii) Input port.
In a matrix keyboard, the major task is to identify a key that is
pressed and decode the key in terms of its binary value. This task is
accomplished through either software or hardware.
iv. Domestic Appliances:
Microprocessors are also being incorporated with relatively simple
domestic devices such as Ovens, Washing machines, Air
conditioners, Television sets and Alarms. Microprocessor can be
used in Automobiles.
v. Temperature Indicator and Controller
Microprocessors are used in typical process control applications.
Microprocessor monitors a process temperature and display it on a 4
digit, seven segment display. The lower and upper limits of the
temperature being monitored.
vi. Weight Cost System:
It is to provide a digital display of the weight and the price for an
amount of goods.
A pressure transducer is used to generate a voltage that corresponds
to the weight of the goods being measured. This voltage is converted
within the microprocessor into an 8421 BCD representation of the
weight.
vii. Traffic Light Control:
13. Traffic Light Colors : Green, Yellow and Red
Microprocessors are used to give signal to traffic in traffic light
controller.
viii. Instrumentation:
The processing power of the 8 bit microprocessor is more than
adequate to satisfy the requirements of most of the instrumentation
applications.
Frequency meters, function generators, frequency synthesizers,
spectrum analyzers, and many other instruments are available, where
microprocessors are used as controllers.Microprocessors are also used
in Medical Instrumentation. E.g. Patient Monitoring in Intensive Care
Unit, Pathological Analysis and the measurement of parameters like
blood pressure and temperature.
ix. Communication :
In the telephone Industry, microprocessors are used in digital
telephone sets, telephone exchanges and modems.
Microprocessor is used in Radio, Television and satellite
communication.
Microprocessors are making possible implementation of LAN and
WAN for communication of varied information through computer
network.
x. Robots:
It is a Numeric controlled machine. Robots are used in the Motor Car
and domestic appliance industries.
Descriptive answers in short
6. Explain the minimum mode operation of 8086 in detail.
When 8086 is in minimum mode
Pin definitions for the minimum mode
Diagrams used for minimum mode system
Explanations
Timing diagram
7. What do you mean by Addressing Mode ? What are the different addressing
modes supported by 8086 ? Explain each of them with suitable examples.
Definition
14. Data Related Addressing modes with examples
Immediate
Direct
Register
Register Indirect
Register Relative
Based Indexed
Relative Based Indexed
Branch Related Addressing modes
Intra segment Direct
Intra segment Indirect
Inter segment Direct
Inter Segment Indirect
8. Explain the maximum mode operation of 8086 in detail.
When 8086 is in maximum mode
Pin definitions for the maximum mode
Diagrams used for maximum mode system
Explanations
Timing diagram
9. (i) Write about instruction formats in 8086 ?
(ii) Explain the special bit indicators in op-code
(iii)What do you mean by ‘Mod’ value in Addressing mode byte ?
Give explanation with examples.
Ans :
(i) Instruction formats
One byte to six byte instructions
(ii) Special bit indicators in op-code :
S-bit, W-bit, D-bit, V-bit, Z-bit
(iii)About mod in addressing mode byte with examples