The document provides a brief history of Intel processors from 1971 to 2000. It summarizes each processor model, highlighting key specs and their impact. The 4004 was Intel's first microprocessor, powering calculators. The 8008 was twice as powerful. The 8080 was used in the Altair, inspiring the PC revolution. The 8088 powered the IBM PC. Later chips like the 286, 386, and 486 added more power and capabilities. The Pentium brought multimedia and became a household name. Advances continued with models like the Celeron, Xeon, and Pentium 4, bringing more performance for applications like video and internet use.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The document summarizes the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 1999. It describes key microprocessors including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8088, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Celeron. With each generation, transistors increased and features improved to enable more powerful personal computing. The Intel microprocessors established Intel as the dominant force in the PC market and fueled the growth of the personal computer industry.
This document provides a history of microprocessors from 1971 to present. It describes the major developments including early 4-bit and 8-bit processors from Intel like the 4004 and 8080. It outlines the introduction of 16-bit processors like the 8086 and 32-bit processors such as the 80386. It discusses the evolution of Intel processors including the Pentium, Core i3, i5 and i7 lines and the transition to 64-bit architecture. The document presents details on the specifications and impact of these pivotal microprocessors over several decades of computing technology advancement.
The document summarizes the five generations of microprocessor development from 1971 to the present. It discusses the major microprocessors from each generation, including their specifications and technologies. The first generation in the 1970s included 4-bit and 8-bit processors from Intel and other companies. The second generation saw the rise of 8-bit processors. The third generation was dominated by 16-bit processors. The fourth generation introduced 32-bit processors, and the fifth generation included 64-bit processors and dual/quad-core CPUs with improved speeds and functionality. Key Intel processors from each generation are described in detail across multiple slides.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to present. It discusses each generation from the 4004 (4-bit) to the latest Intel i7 processors. Key details provided on each generation include the year of introduction, processing capabilities, memory capacity, and technological improvements over previous versions. The document shows how Intel microprocessors have progressed from 4-bit to 32-bit and 64-bit capabilities, with increasing speeds, memory capacity, and additional features with each new generation.
The document traces the evolution of Intel processors from 4-bit to modern 64-bit processors. It discusses the key developments including the 4004 (1971), the first commercial microprocessor, the 8086 (1978) which introduced the x86 architecture, the 80386 (1985) which was the first 32-bit processor, and the Core i7 (2008) which is one of Intel's top consumer processors today. The document highlights increasing transistor counts, clock speeds, memory addressing and capabilities with each generation to show Intel's leadership in driving the advancement of microprocessor technology over the past 50 years.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors across five generations from 1971 to present. It describes the key developments including the first microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1971 called the 4004. Subsequent generations saw the development of 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors using newer technologies that improved speed and density. The fifth generation is dominated by Intel processors like Pentium and multi-core CPUs that can exceed speeds of 1GHz.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The document summarizes the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 1999. It describes key microprocessors including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8088, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Celeron. With each generation, transistors increased and features improved to enable more powerful personal computing. The Intel microprocessors established Intel as the dominant force in the PC market and fueled the growth of the personal computer industry.
This document provides a history of microprocessors from 1971 to present. It describes the major developments including early 4-bit and 8-bit processors from Intel like the 4004 and 8080. It outlines the introduction of 16-bit processors like the 8086 and 32-bit processors such as the 80386. It discusses the evolution of Intel processors including the Pentium, Core i3, i5 and i7 lines and the transition to 64-bit architecture. The document presents details on the specifications and impact of these pivotal microprocessors over several decades of computing technology advancement.
The document summarizes the five generations of microprocessor development from 1971 to the present. It discusses the major microprocessors from each generation, including their specifications and technologies. The first generation in the 1970s included 4-bit and 8-bit processors from Intel and other companies. The second generation saw the rise of 8-bit processors. The third generation was dominated by 16-bit processors. The fourth generation introduced 32-bit processors, and the fifth generation included 64-bit processors and dual/quad-core CPUs with improved speeds and functionality. Key Intel processors from each generation are described in detail across multiple slides.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to present. It discusses each generation from the 4004 (4-bit) to the latest Intel i7 processors. Key details provided on each generation include the year of introduction, processing capabilities, memory capacity, and technological improvements over previous versions. The document shows how Intel microprocessors have progressed from 4-bit to 32-bit and 64-bit capabilities, with increasing speeds, memory capacity, and additional features with each new generation.
The document traces the evolution of Intel processors from 4-bit to modern 64-bit processors. It discusses the key developments including the 4004 (1971), the first commercial microprocessor, the 8086 (1978) which introduced the x86 architecture, the 80386 (1985) which was the first 32-bit processor, and the Core i7 (2008) which is one of Intel's top consumer processors today. The document highlights increasing transistor counts, clock speeds, memory addressing and capabilities with each generation to show Intel's leadership in driving the advancement of microprocessor technology over the past 50 years.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors across five generations from 1971 to present. It describes the key developments including the first microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1971 called the 4004. Subsequent generations saw the development of 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors using newer technologies that improved speed and density. The fifth generation is dominated by Intel processors like Pentium and multi-core CPUs that can exceed speeds of 1GHz.
The document provides a history of Intel microprocessors from their first 4-bit microprocessor, the 4004 introduced in 1971, through early 8-bit and 16-bit processors like the 8008, 8080, and 8086, and describes the introduction of 32-bit processors like the 80386 and 64-bit processors such as the Pentium, Core i3, i5, and i7. It details key specifications and improvements in each generation such as increased clock speeds, expanded bus widths and memory capacity, and growing transistor counts, charting Intel's progression toward more powerful multi-core 64-bit processors.
The document discusses different types of processors made by Intel. It provides details on Intel Core i3, i5 and i7 processors which are designed for mainstream desktops and laptops. It also mentions Intel Celeron, Atom and Pentium processors which are more affordable and used in budget laptops and desktops. The document further discusses other Intel processors like Core 2 Duo, Xeon and Core Extreme which are used for more intensive workloads and applications.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
A presentation on Evaluation of MicroprocessorShah Imtiyaj
This presentation summarizes the historical background of several major microprocessor companies, including Intel, IBM, AMD, and MIPS Technology. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 to more advanced 8-bit and 64-bit processors. For each company, it outlines some of the most notable microprocessor models released over the years, along with key details about their specifications and impact. The presentation concludes that the microprocessor has transformed computing and undergone rapid advancement from its initial conception to today's high-powered multiprocessor systems.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors from 1971 to 2010. It describes each new microprocessor generation including the year introduced, number of bits, clock speed, number of transistors, memory size, and key features. Major milestones include the first 4-bit microprocessor in 1971, the 8-bit processors in the 1970s, the 16-bit 8086 in 1978, early 32-bit processors in the 1980s and 1990s, and 64-bit processors after 2006 with increasing cores, cache, and transistors.
This document traces the evolution of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models over several decades. It discusses early microprocessors developed by Intel and other companies, including the 4004 (4-bit, 1971), the 8008 and 8080 (8-bit, 1972 and 1974), the 8086 and 8088 (16-bit, 1978 and 1979), the 80386 (32-bit, 1985), and the introduction of 64-bit processors in the 2000s. Each new generation brought increased processing power, through higher bit sizes, clock speeds, transistor counts and features like caches and multicore designs.
this presentation is a great to deliver in classrooms, stage or also can be used to deliver lecture on "Evolution of processor".
it is also very helpful to learn about microprocessor, directly we can say its a self pack containing all about microprocessor.
this ppt contains evolution not only on the basis of generations but also on the basis of their invention.
must gothrough it
The Intel 4004 was the first commercially available microprocessor. It contained 2,300 transistors and integrated the central processing unit, memory, and input/output controls onto a single chip for the first time. The 4004 had a maximum clock speed of 740 kHz and could perform between 46,300 to 92,600 instructions per second. It used a 4-bit architecture with instructions and data transferred over a single multiplexed bus.
The document provides an overview of computer processors, including their history, functions, types, advantages, and applications. It discusses how processors have evolved from early 4-bit models in the 1960s to modern multi-core chips. Key developments include Intel's 4004 processor in 1971, the introduction of dual-core processors in the 2000s, and today's chips that can have dozens of cores. The document also compares Intel and AMD processors, noting that while Intel typically has higher clock speeds, AMD processors can perform better for tasks like gaming.
This presentation summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from mechanical to electrical to microprocessor ages. It discusses early mechanical calculators like the abacus. The first electronic computers included the Z3 in 1941 and ENIAC in 1946. Major early microprocessors included the Intel 4004 in 1971, the first microchip. Later microprocessors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, 80486 and Pentium increased processing power and memory capacity. The presentation provides details on the specifications and impact of these processors in driving technology forward.
This document is a student's report on the history of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models. It outlines the major microprocessor models released by Intel from the 4004 in 1971 to the current multi-core 64-bit Core i7 models. For each generation of processors, details are given on specifications like clock speed, transistor count, cache memory and capabilities. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of microprocessor technology and performance over decades.
The document traces the history and specifications of Intel microprocessors from 1969 to 2011. It begins with the Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor from 1969, and details the introduction of subsequent chips including the 8008, 8080, 8086, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7 lines. Key specifications like clock speed, number of transistors, register size, and data bus are provided for each generation as processing capabilities increased significantly over the decades.
This document provides an overview of Intel processor history and details about the Intel i7 microprocessor. It outlines the evolution of Intel processors from 1978 to 2013, including models like the 8086, 80386, Pentium, and Core i series. The document then describes key features of the Intel i7 including its quad-core design, support for multiple threads, integrated memory controller, cache structure, and technologies like hyper-threading, turbo boost, and virtualization support. Diagrams of the i7 architecture and its registers are also included.
The microprocessor is a chip that processes data using built-in transistors and cache. Microprocessors come in different types like CISC and RISC based on the number of instructions. Intel Pentium microprocessors power everyday applications while Intel Celeron microprocessors are more economical. Microprocessors connect to the motherboard via different sockets and slots and can be configured, upgraded, and troubleshot.
The microprocessor has evolved significantly since the Intel 4004 was introduced in 1971. Early microprocessors had 4-bit architectures with limited memory addressing. Throughout the 1970s, 8-bit microprocessors became prominent with expanded addressing. In the 1980s, 16-bit and 32-bit processors allowed for greater memory and improved performance. Modern multicore 64-bit processors can have dozens of cores and address petabytes of memory.
The document traces the evolution of microprocessors from the early 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to the 64-bit MIPS R4000 in 1991. It describes the key innovations of each generation including increased bit width, transistor count, and performance. The first generation from 1971-1978 had processors with less than 50k transistors and under 50k instructions per second. The second generation from 1979-1985 saw the introduction of 32-bit processors with over 50k transistors. The third generation from 1985-1989 included reduced instruction set computers with over 100k transistors. The fourth generation from 1990 onward introduced 64-bit architectures with over 1 million transistors and performance leadership.
The document details the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 1970s to recent times. It provides information on early processors like the 4004 and 8086 from the 1970s with clock speeds up to 10MHz, and bus widths of 4 to 16 bits. Processors from the 1980s included the 80286 with up to 12.5MHz speed and 16-bit bus, and the 386 with speeds up to 33MHz and 32-bit bus. Later processors included the Pentium Pro in 1995 with speeds up to 200MHz and 64-bit bus, and more recent processors like the Core 2 Duo from 2006 with speeds up to 1.2GHz and cache sizes of 512KB.
The document outlines the evolution of microprocessors over 5 generations from 1971 to present. It discusses the major developments including the introduction of the first microprocessor by Intel in 1971. Subsequent generations brought improvements like 8-bit processors in the second generation, 16-bit processors in the third, and 32-bit processors in the fourth generation. The fifth generation emphasized 64-bit processors and improvements in speed and on-chip functionality.
The document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 1997, highlighting several major milestones. It describes the 4004 as Intel's first microprocessor in 1971. The 8080 became the central processing unit of the first personal computer, the Altair, in 1974. The 8086 and 8088, released in 1978 and 1979 respectively, established Intel in the personal computer market. Subsequent processors like the 286, 386, 486, and Pentium lines further increased processing power and capabilities.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessor technology from 1971 to the present. It describes the key developments including the earliest 4-bit microprocessors from Intel like the 4004. It then outlines the progression to 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit processors, highlighting models like the 8080, 8086, 80286, 386, 486, Pentium, and Itanium. The document also notes how Moore's Law has allowed the number of transistors on chips to double every two years, and discusses dual core and other emerging technologies that will help extend Moore's Law into the future.
The document provides a history of Intel microprocessors from their first 4-bit microprocessor, the 4004 introduced in 1971, through early 8-bit and 16-bit processors like the 8008, 8080, and 8086, and describes the introduction of 32-bit processors like the 80386 and 64-bit processors such as the Pentium, Core i3, i5, and i7. It details key specifications and improvements in each generation such as increased clock speeds, expanded bus widths and memory capacity, and growing transistor counts, charting Intel's progression toward more powerful multi-core 64-bit processors.
The document discusses different types of processors made by Intel. It provides details on Intel Core i3, i5 and i7 processors which are designed for mainstream desktops and laptops. It also mentions Intel Celeron, Atom and Pentium processors which are more affordable and used in budget laptops and desktops. The document further discusses other Intel processors like Core 2 Duo, Xeon and Core Extreme which are used for more intensive workloads and applications.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
A presentation on Evaluation of MicroprocessorShah Imtiyaj
This presentation summarizes the historical background of several major microprocessor companies, including Intel, IBM, AMD, and MIPS Technology. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 to more advanced 8-bit and 64-bit processors. For each company, it outlines some of the most notable microprocessor models released over the years, along with key details about their specifications and impact. The presentation concludes that the microprocessor has transformed computing and undergone rapid advancement from its initial conception to today's high-powered multiprocessor systems.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors from 1971 to 2010. It describes each new microprocessor generation including the year introduced, number of bits, clock speed, number of transistors, memory size, and key features. Major milestones include the first 4-bit microprocessor in 1971, the 8-bit processors in the 1970s, the 16-bit 8086 in 1978, early 32-bit processors in the 1980s and 1990s, and 64-bit processors after 2006 with increasing cores, cache, and transistors.
This document traces the evolution of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models over several decades. It discusses early microprocessors developed by Intel and other companies, including the 4004 (4-bit, 1971), the 8008 and 8080 (8-bit, 1972 and 1974), the 8086 and 8088 (16-bit, 1978 and 1979), the 80386 (32-bit, 1985), and the introduction of 64-bit processors in the 2000s. Each new generation brought increased processing power, through higher bit sizes, clock speeds, transistor counts and features like caches and multicore designs.
this presentation is a great to deliver in classrooms, stage or also can be used to deliver lecture on "Evolution of processor".
it is also very helpful to learn about microprocessor, directly we can say its a self pack containing all about microprocessor.
this ppt contains evolution not only on the basis of generations but also on the basis of their invention.
must gothrough it
The Intel 4004 was the first commercially available microprocessor. It contained 2,300 transistors and integrated the central processing unit, memory, and input/output controls onto a single chip for the first time. The 4004 had a maximum clock speed of 740 kHz and could perform between 46,300 to 92,600 instructions per second. It used a 4-bit architecture with instructions and data transferred over a single multiplexed bus.
The document provides an overview of computer processors, including their history, functions, types, advantages, and applications. It discusses how processors have evolved from early 4-bit models in the 1960s to modern multi-core chips. Key developments include Intel's 4004 processor in 1971, the introduction of dual-core processors in the 2000s, and today's chips that can have dozens of cores. The document also compares Intel and AMD processors, noting that while Intel typically has higher clock speeds, AMD processors can perform better for tasks like gaming.
This presentation summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from mechanical to electrical to microprocessor ages. It discusses early mechanical calculators like the abacus. The first electronic computers included the Z3 in 1941 and ENIAC in 1946. Major early microprocessors included the Intel 4004 in 1971, the first microchip. Later microprocessors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, 80486 and Pentium increased processing power and memory capacity. The presentation provides details on the specifications and impact of these processors in driving technology forward.
This document is a student's report on the history of microprocessors from 4-bit to 64-bit models. It outlines the major microprocessor models released by Intel from the 4004 in 1971 to the current multi-core 64-bit Core i7 models. For each generation of processors, details are given on specifications like clock speed, transistor count, cache memory and capabilities. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of microprocessor technology and performance over decades.
The document traces the history and specifications of Intel microprocessors from 1969 to 2011. It begins with the Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor from 1969, and details the introduction of subsequent chips including the 8008, 8080, 8086, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7 lines. Key specifications like clock speed, number of transistors, register size, and data bus are provided for each generation as processing capabilities increased significantly over the decades.
This document provides an overview of Intel processor history and details about the Intel i7 microprocessor. It outlines the evolution of Intel processors from 1978 to 2013, including models like the 8086, 80386, Pentium, and Core i series. The document then describes key features of the Intel i7 including its quad-core design, support for multiple threads, integrated memory controller, cache structure, and technologies like hyper-threading, turbo boost, and virtualization support. Diagrams of the i7 architecture and its registers are also included.
The microprocessor is a chip that processes data using built-in transistors and cache. Microprocessors come in different types like CISC and RISC based on the number of instructions. Intel Pentium microprocessors power everyday applications while Intel Celeron microprocessors are more economical. Microprocessors connect to the motherboard via different sockets and slots and can be configured, upgraded, and troubleshot.
The microprocessor has evolved significantly since the Intel 4004 was introduced in 1971. Early microprocessors had 4-bit architectures with limited memory addressing. Throughout the 1970s, 8-bit microprocessors became prominent with expanded addressing. In the 1980s, 16-bit and 32-bit processors allowed for greater memory and improved performance. Modern multicore 64-bit processors can have dozens of cores and address petabytes of memory.
The document traces the evolution of microprocessors from the early 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to the 64-bit MIPS R4000 in 1991. It describes the key innovations of each generation including increased bit width, transistor count, and performance. The first generation from 1971-1978 had processors with less than 50k transistors and under 50k instructions per second. The second generation from 1979-1985 saw the introduction of 32-bit processors with over 50k transistors. The third generation from 1985-1989 included reduced instruction set computers with over 100k transistors. The fourth generation from 1990 onward introduced 64-bit architectures with over 1 million transistors and performance leadership.
The document details the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 1970s to recent times. It provides information on early processors like the 4004 and 8086 from the 1970s with clock speeds up to 10MHz, and bus widths of 4 to 16 bits. Processors from the 1980s included the 80286 with up to 12.5MHz speed and 16-bit bus, and the 386 with speeds up to 33MHz and 32-bit bus. Later processors included the Pentium Pro in 1995 with speeds up to 200MHz and 64-bit bus, and more recent processors like the Core 2 Duo from 2006 with speeds up to 1.2GHz and cache sizes of 512KB.
The document outlines the evolution of microprocessors over 5 generations from 1971 to present. It discusses the major developments including the introduction of the first microprocessor by Intel in 1971. Subsequent generations brought improvements like 8-bit processors in the second generation, 16-bit processors in the third, and 32-bit processors in the fourth generation. The fifth generation emphasized 64-bit processors and improvements in speed and on-chip functionality.
The document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 1997, highlighting several major milestones. It describes the 4004 as Intel's first microprocessor in 1971. The 8080 became the central processing unit of the first personal computer, the Altair, in 1974. The 8086 and 8088, released in 1978 and 1979 respectively, established Intel in the personal computer market. Subsequent processors like the 286, 386, 486, and Pentium lines further increased processing power and capabilities.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessor technology from 1971 to the present. It describes the key developments including the earliest 4-bit microprocessors from Intel like the 4004. It then outlines the progression to 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit processors, highlighting models like the 8080, 8086, 80286, 386, 486, Pentium, and Itanium. The document also notes how Moore's Law has allowed the number of transistors on chips to double every two years, and discusses dual core and other emerging technologies that will help extend Moore's Law into the future.
Ted Hoff at Intel invented the microprocessor to fulfill a contract from Busicom for calculator chips. The set of chips included a central processing unit chip called the 4004, which came to be known as the first microprocessor. While the 4004 had limited capabilities, Intel continued developing microprocessors through the 8008, 8080, 8086 and beyond, with each new model offering increased capabilities. These microprocessors helped establish Intel as the dominant maker of microprocessors, outcompeting early rivals like Motorola.
The document provides a historical overview of the development of information technology from the 1960s to the 2000s. Some key points:
- Hardware innovations in the 1960s-1970s included the development of the microprocessor, floppy disks, hard disks, and programming languages like BASIC which drove the shift from mainframes to personal computers.
- The 1980s saw the rise of software and programs like VisiCalc which transformed workflows. Popular home computers included the Apple II and Commodore 64. The IBM PC launched in 1981 running DOS, establishing the IBM standard. The spreadsheet Lotus 1-2-3 popularized in 1982.
- By the 1980s, IT transformed from a centralized department
A motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that connects all the components like the CPU, memory, storage drives, and ports. It acts as the central hub and allows the components to communicate. Over time, motherboards have evolved from connecting components with wires to using printed circuit boards. Key developments in motherboards include the introduction of the microprocessor in the 1970s and major manufacturers like Intel planning to produce their own motherboards in the late 1990s.
The document discusses the evolution of computers from the 1960s to the 1980s, including key innovations and models. It describes how third generation computers began using integrated circuits and semiconductor memory. Major developments included the IBM System 360 mainframe in 1964, the Intel 4004 microprocessor in 1971 which led to personal computers, and the IBM PC in 1981 which popularized the use of microcomputers. The document provides details on several important computer models from each generation.
The document provides a history of key developments in microcomputers from 1965 to 1992. It describes early home computers like the Kitchen Computer in 1965 and the development of important technologies like the microprocessor in 1971. Major events include the introduction of the Altair 880 in 1975, generally considered the first personal computer, the launch of the Apple I and II in 1976-1977, and the IBM PC in 1981 which helped drive mass adoption. The document outlines the creation of important software like VisiCalc and WordStar in the late 1970s and covers the rise of the GUI with the Apple Lisa and Macintosh in the 1980s. It chronicles advances in processors, networking, and other technologies that fueled the growth of personal computing
The document provides a history of key developments in microcomputers from 1965 to 1992. It describes early home computers like the Kitchen Computer in 1965 and the development of important technologies like microprocessors in the 1970s. Major events included the introduction of the Altair 880 in 1975, generally considered the first personal computer, and the Apple I and II in 1976-1977. The document traces the evolution of hardware, software, operating systems and networking through the 1980s and early 1990s, including the introduction of Windows and the World Wide Web.
My ISCA 2013 - 40th International Symposium on Computer Architecture KeynoteDileep Bhandarkar
Keynote speech delivered in Tel Aviv on 25 June 2013.
I had the privilege of being the first speaker at the First Annual Symposium on Computer Architecture in 1973. Over the last 40 years I have worked on PDP-11, VAX, MIPS, Alpha, x86, Itanium, and ARM processors and systems.
Moore’s Law has enabled computer architects to increase the pace of innovation and the development of microprocessors with new instruction sets.
In the 1970s, minicomputers from Digital Equipment Corporation, Data General and Hewlett Packard started to challenge IBM mainframes. The introduction of the 32-bit VAX-11/780 in 1978 was a landmark event. The single chip MicroVAX was introduced in 1985.
The IBM PC was introduced on August 12, 1981, followed by many IBM PC compatible machines from Compaq and others. This led to the tremendous growth of x86 processors from Intel and AMD. Today, the x86 processor dominate the computer industry.
In 1987, the introduction of RISC processors based on Sun’s SPARC architecture spawned the now famous RISC vs CISC debates. RISC processors from MIPS, IBM (Power, Power PC), and HP (PA-RISC) started to gain market share. This forced Digital to first adopt MIPS processors, and later introduce Alpha in 1992.
The RISC supremacy continued until the introduction of the first out of order x86 Pentium Pro processor in 1995, expanding the role of x86 into workstations and servers. The x86 architecture was extended to 64 bits by AMD in the Opteron processor in 2003, forcing Intel to launch its own compatible processor.
Disruptive technologies usually come from below. We have seen users migrate from mainframes to minicomputers to RISC workstations and servers to desktop PCs and PC servers to notebooks and tablets. Volume economics has driven the industry. The next wave will be the technology used in smart phones. With over a billion chips sold annually, this technology will appear in other platforms. Several companies have announced plans for ARM based servers.
Moore’s Law has also enabled computer architects to advance the sophistication of microprocessors. We will review some of the significant milestones leading from the first Intel 4004 to today’s state of the art processors.
1. Intel had lost significant market share in the DRAM business by 1984 as Japanese competitors improved their process technology and reduced costs faster than Intel. Intel struggled to transition to smaller geometries like the 64K generation.
2. Intel attempted to differentiate its DRAMs by transitioning to CMOS technology and implementing redundancy techniques, but these efforts did not stop the decline in market share.
3. With NMOS DRAM prices falling rapidly in 1984, Intel was left with less than 4% of the 256K market and no presence in 64K DRAMs. Management debated whether to exit DRAMs entirely or pursue licensing and partnership options to regain leadership in the 1-megabit generation.
The document provides a history and overview of computer processors. It discusses how the first microprocessor was developed by Intel in 1971 and led to advances in personal computers. It then describes key aspects of processors like the central processing unit, specifications such as speed and memory cache. It lists major manufacturers and generations of processors from Intel and AMD. It also explains desktop processors over time from these companies and characteristics of different Intel Core processor generations.
Fourth generation computers used microprocessors and large-scale integration technology. They were widely used from 1971 to 2010. Microcomputers, also known as personal computers, became popular during this time for individual use. Some key examples included the Apple II, TRS-80, and IBM PC. These machines had graphical user interfaces and more capabilities than previous generations, but also had greater complexity and reliance on electricity. Supercomputers were also developed during this time for advanced scientific and engineering applications, featuring high processing power and memory.
This document provides a history of microprocessor generations from the Intel 4004 in 1971 to modern microprocessors. It discusses the characteristics that differentiate microprocessors like instruction set, bandwidth, and clock speed. It then gives a more detailed history of specific Intel microprocessors including the Celeron, Pentium, and Xeon lines from 2000 onwards, outlining the key specifications and releases each year.
This document provides an introduction to microcomputers and microprocessors. It discusses how a microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU) of a microcomputer. A microcomputer system consists of a CPU (microprocessor), memory, and input/output devices connected by buses. The document then traces the evolution of microprocessors from the first 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to more advanced 32-bit and 64-bit processors over subsequent decades. It provides details on characteristics of important processors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium series. The document concludes with information on the internal structure of the Intel 8085 microprocessor.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of microprocessors. It discusses how the invention of the transistor led to the development of integrated circuits and eventually microprocessors. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 designed in 1971. This began the shift to smaller and more affordable personal computers. The document then discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, including its arithmetic logic unit, registers, buses, and classification based on data width and application.
The document discusses the history and types of microprocessors. It notes that the microprocessor was born out of reducing the word size of CPUs to fit logic circuits onto a single integrated circuit. It then discusses notable 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessor designs from companies like Intel, Motorola, and Texas Instruments. The document also covers topics like RISC processors, multi-core processors, special-purpose microprocessors, and common microprocessor architectures.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of microprocessors from the early Intel 4004 microprocessor in 1971 to modern multi-core processors. It describes several generations of Intel microprocessors including the 8-bit 8080 and 8085, early 16-bit processors like the 8086 and 8088, the 32-bit 80386, and the Pentium series which introduced superscalar and parallel processing. It also discusses Intel partnering with HP to develop the 64-bit Itanium architecture and the introduction of dual-core and quad-core processors like the Pentium Dual-Core and Core 2 Quad.
The document compares several Intel microprocessors: the 8086, 386, 486, and Pentium II. It provides details on the architecture and features of each. The 8086 was a 16-bit processor that could address 1 Mb of memory. The 386 was Intel's first 32-bit processor and included memory management features. The 486 was also 32-bit and added an on-chip cache. The Pentium II was a higher performance processor that incorporated the Pentium Pro architecture and Intel MMX technology.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Software Engineering and Project Management - Introduction, Modeling Concepts...Prakhyath Rai
Introduction, Modeling Concepts and Class Modeling: What is Object orientation? What is OO development? OO Themes; Evidence for usefulness of OO development; OO modeling history. Modeling
as Design technique: Modeling, abstraction, The Three models. Class Modeling: Object and Class Concept, Link and associations concepts, Generalization and Inheritance, A sample class model, Navigation of class models, and UML diagrams
Building the Analysis Models: Requirement Analysis, Analysis Model Approaches, Data modeling Concepts, Object Oriented Analysis, Scenario-Based Modeling, Flow-Oriented Modeling, class Based Modeling, Creating a Behavioral Model.
1. Intel ProcessorsIntel Processors
Information and images of the processors taken fromInformation and images of the processors taken from
http://www.intel.com/museum/online/hist_micro/hof/http://www.intel.com/museum/online/hist_micro/hof/
4. 1971: 4004 Microprocessor1971: 4004 Microprocessor
The 4004 was Intel's first microprocessor. ThisThe 4004 was Intel's first microprocessor. This
breakthrough invention powered the Busicombreakthrough invention powered the Busicom
calculator and paved the way for embeddingcalculator and paved the way for embedding
intelligence in inanimate objects as well as theintelligence in inanimate objects as well as the
personal computer.personal computer.
8. 1972: 8008 Microprocessor1972: 8008 Microprocessor
The 8008 was twice as powerful as the 4004.The 8008 was twice as powerful as the 4004.
A 1974 article in Radio Electronics referred toA 1974 article in Radio Electronics referred to
a device called the Mark-8 which used thea device called the Mark-8 which used the
8008. The Mark-8 is known as one of the first8008. The Mark-8 is known as one of the first
computers for the home --one that by today'scomputers for the home --one that by today's
standards was difficult to build, maintain andstandards was difficult to build, maintain and
operate.operate.
12. 1974: 8080 Microprocessor1974: 8080 Microprocessor
The 8080 became the brains of the firstThe 8080 became the brains of the first
personal computer--the Altair, allegedlypersonal computer--the Altair, allegedly
named for a destination of the Starshipnamed for a destination of the Starship
Enterprise from the Star Trek television show.Enterprise from the Star Trek television show.
Computer hobbyists could purchase a kit forComputer hobbyists could purchase a kit for
the Altair for $395. Within months, it sold tensthe Altair for $395. Within months, it sold tens
of thousands, creating the first PC back ordersof thousands, creating the first PC back orders
in history.in history.
16. 1978: 8086-8088 Microprocessor1978: 8086-8088 Microprocessor
A pivotal sale to IBM's new personal computerA pivotal sale to IBM's new personal computer
division made the 8088 the brains of IBM'sdivision made the 8088 the brains of IBM's
new hit product--the IBM PC. The 8088'snew hit product--the IBM PC. The 8088's
success propelled Intel into the ranks of thesuccess propelled Intel into the ranks of the
Fortune 500, and Fortune magazine named theFortune 500, and Fortune magazine named the
company one of the "Business Triumphs of thecompany one of the "Business Triumphs of the
Seventies."Seventies."
19. 1982: 286 Microprocessor1982: 286 Microprocessor
The Intel 286, originally known as the 80286,The Intel 286, originally known as the 80286,
was the first Intel processor that could run allwas the first Intel processor that could run all
the software written for its predecessor. Thisthe software written for its predecessor. This
software compatibility remains a hallmark ofsoftware compatibility remains a hallmark of
Intel's family of microprocessors. Within 6Intel's family of microprocessors. Within 6
years of its release, an estimated 15 millionyears of its release, an estimated 15 million
286-based personal computers were installed286-based personal computers were installed
around the world.around the world.
22. 1985: Intel386™ Microprocessor1985: Intel386™ Microprocessor
The Intel386™ microprocessor featuredThe Intel386™ microprocessor featured
275,000 transistors--more than 100times as275,000 transistors--more than 100times as
many as the original 4004. It was a 32-bit chipmany as the original 4004. It was a 32-bit chip
and was "multi tasking," meaning it could runand was "multi tasking," meaning it could run
multiple programs at the same time.multiple programs at the same time.
23. 1989: Intel486™ DX CPU1989: Intel486™ DX CPU
MicroprocessorMicroprocessor
24. 1989: Intel486™ DX CPU1989: Intel486™ DX CPU
MicroprocessorMicroprocessor
http://www.100megspopup.com/redawa/Graphics/Icon486.jpg
25. 1989: Intel486™ DX CPU1989: Intel486™ DX CPU
MicroprocessorMicroprocessor
The Intel486™ processor generation really meant youThe Intel486™ processor generation really meant you
go from a command-level computer into point-and-go from a command-level computer into point-and-
click computing. "I could have a color computer forclick computing. "I could have a color computer for
the first time and do desktop publishing at athe first time and do desktop publishing at a
significant speed," recalls technology historian Davidsignificant speed," recalls technology historian David
K. Allison of the Smithsonian's National Museum ofK. Allison of the Smithsonian's National Museum of
American History. The Intel486™ processor was theAmerican History. The Intel486™ processor was the
first to offer a built-in math coprocessor, whichfirst to offer a built-in math coprocessor, which
speeds up computing because it offloads complexspeeds up computing because it offloads complex
math functions from the central processor.math functions from the central processor.
27. 1993: Intel® Pentium® Processor1993: Intel® Pentium® Processor
The Intel Pentium® processor allowedThe Intel Pentium® processor allowed
computers to more easily incorporate "realcomputers to more easily incorporate "real
world" data such as speech, sound,world" data such as speech, sound,
handwriting and photographic images. Thehandwriting and photographic images. The
Intel Pentium brand, mentioned in the comicsIntel Pentium brand, mentioned in the comics
and on television talk shows, became aand on television talk shows, became a
household word soon after introduction.household word soon after introduction.
29. 1995: Intel® Pentium® Pro1995: Intel® Pentium® Pro
ProcessorProcessor
Released in the fall of 1995 the Intel®Released in the fall of 1995 the Intel®
Pentium® Pro processor is designed to fuelPentium® Pro processor is designed to fuel
32-bit server and workstation applications,32-bit server and workstation applications,
enabling fast computer-aided design,enabling fast computer-aided design,
mechanical engineering and scientificmechanical engineering and scientific
computation. Each Intel® Pentium Procomputation. Each Intel® Pentium Pro
processor is packaged together with a secondprocessor is packaged together with a second
speed-enhancing cache memory chip. Thespeed-enhancing cache memory chip. The
powerful Pentium® Pro processor boasts 5.5powerful Pentium® Pro processor boasts 5.5
million transistors.million transistors.
31. 1997: Intel® Pentium® II Processor1997: Intel® Pentium® II Processor
The 7.5 million-transistor Intel® Pentium II processorThe 7.5 million-transistor Intel® Pentium II processor
incorporates Intel® MMX™ technology, which isincorporates Intel® MMX™ technology, which is
designed specifically to process video, audio anddesigned specifically to process video, audio and
graphics data efficiently. It was introduced ingraphics data efficiently. It was introduced in
innovative Single Edge Contact (S.E.C) Cartridgeinnovative Single Edge Contact (S.E.C) Cartridge
that also incorporated a high-speed cache memorythat also incorporated a high-speed cache memory
chip. With this chip, PC users can capture, edit andchip. With this chip, PC users can capture, edit and
share digital photos with friends and family via theshare digital photos with friends and family via the
Internet; edit and add text, music or between-sceneInternet; edit and add text, music or between-scene
transitions to home movies; and, with a video phone,transitions to home movies; and, with a video phone,
send video over standard phone lines and the Internet.send video over standard phone lines and the Internet.
33. 1998: Intel® Pentium II Xeon1998: Intel® Pentium II Xeon
ProcessorProcessor
The Intel® Pentium II Xeon processors are designedThe Intel® Pentium II Xeon processors are designed
to meet the performance requirements of mid-rangeto meet the performance requirements of mid-range
and higher servers and workstations. Consistent withand higher servers and workstations. Consistent with
Intel's strategy to deliver unique processor productsIntel's strategy to deliver unique processor products
targeted for specific markets segments, the Intel®targeted for specific markets segments, the Intel®
Pentium II Xeon processors feature technicalPentium II Xeon processors feature technical
innovations specifically designed for workstationsinnovations specifically designed for workstations
and servers that utilize demanding businessand servers that utilize demanding business
applications such as Internet services, corporate dataapplications such as Internet services, corporate data
warehousing, digital content creation, and electronicwarehousing, digital content creation, and electronic
and mechanical design automation. Systems based onand mechanical design automation. Systems based on
the processor can be configured to scale to four orthe processor can be configured to scale to four or
eight processors and beyond.eight processors and beyond.
35. 1999: Intel® Celeron® Processor1999: Intel® Celeron® Processor
Continuing Intel's strategy of developingContinuing Intel's strategy of developing
processors for specific market segments, theprocessors for specific market segments, the
Intel® Celeron® processor is designed for theIntel® Celeron® processor is designed for the
value PC market segment. It providesvalue PC market segment. It provides
consumers great performance at an exceptionalconsumers great performance at an exceptional
price, and it delivers excellent performance forprice, and it delivers excellent performance for
uses such as gaming and educational software.uses such as gaming and educational software.
36. 1999: Intel® Pentium® III Processor1999: Intel® Pentium® III Processor
The Intel® Pentium® III processor features 70 newThe Intel® Pentium® III processor features 70 new
instructions--Internet Streaming SIMD extensions--instructions--Internet Streaming SIMD extensions--
that dramatically enhance the performance ofthat dramatically enhance the performance of
advanced imaging, 3-D, streaming audio, video andadvanced imaging, 3-D, streaming audio, video and
speech recognition applications. It was designed tospeech recognition applications. It was designed to
significantly enhance Internet experiences, allowingsignificantly enhance Internet experiences, allowing
users to do such things as browse through realisticusers to do such things as browse through realistic
online museums and stores and download high-online museums and stores and download high-
quality video. The processor incorporates 9.5 millionquality video. The processor incorporates 9.5 million
transistors, and was introduced using 0.25-microntransistors, and was introduced using 0.25-micron
technology.technology.
37. 1999: Intel® Pentium® III Xeon™1999: Intel® Pentium® III Xeon™
ProcessorProcessor
The Intel® Pentium III Xeon™ processor extendsThe Intel® Pentium III Xeon™ processor extends
Intel's offerings to the workstation and server marketIntel's offerings to the workstation and server market
segments, providing additional performance for e-segments, providing additional performance for e-
Commerce applications and advanced businessCommerce applications and advanced business
computing. The processors incorporate the Intel®computing. The processors incorporate the Intel®
Pentium III processor's 70 SIMD instructions, whichPentium III processor's 70 SIMD instructions, which
enhance multimedia and streaming videoenhance multimedia and streaming video
applications. The Intel® Pentium III Xeon processor'sapplications. The Intel® Pentium III Xeon processor's
advance cache technology speeds information fromadvance cache technology speeds information from
the system bus to the processor, significantlythe system bus to the processor, significantly
boosting performance. It is designed for systems withboosting performance. It is designed for systems with
multiprocessor configurations.multiprocessor configurations.
38. 2000: Intel® Pentium® 4 Processor2000: Intel® Pentium® 4 Processor
Users of Intel® Pentium® 4 processor-based PCs can createUsers of Intel® Pentium® 4 processor-based PCs can create
professional-quality movies; deliver TV-like video via theprofessional-quality movies; deliver TV-like video via the
Internet; communicate with real-time video and voice; renderInternet; communicate with real-time video and voice; render
3D graphics in real time; quickly encode music for MP33D graphics in real time; quickly encode music for MP3
players; and simultaneously run several multimediaplayers; and simultaneously run several multimedia
applications while connected to the Internet. The processorapplications while connected to the Internet. The processor
debuted with 42 million transistors and circuit lines of 0.18debuted with 42 million transistors and circuit lines of 0.18
microns. Intel's first microprocessor, the 4004, ran at 108microns. Intel's first microprocessor, the 4004, ran at 108
kilohertz (108,000 hertz), compared to the Intel® Pentium® 4kilohertz (108,000 hertz), compared to the Intel® Pentium® 4
processor's initial speed of 1.5 gigahertz (1.5 billion hertz). Ifprocessor's initial speed of 1.5 gigahertz (1.5 billion hertz). If
automobile speed had increased similarly over the sameautomobile speed had increased similarly over the same
period, you could now drive from San Francisco to New Yorkperiod, you could now drive from San Francisco to New York
in about 13 seconds.in about 13 seconds.
39. 2001: Intel® Xeon™ Processor2001: Intel® Xeon™ Processor
The Intel® Xeon™ processor is targeted for high-performanceThe Intel® Xeon™ processor is targeted for high-performance
and mid-range, dual-processor workstations, dual and multi-and mid-range, dual-processor workstations, dual and multi-
processor server configurations coming in the future. Theprocessor server configurations coming in the future. The
platform offers customers a choice of operating systems andplatform offers customers a choice of operating systems and
applications, along with high performance at affordable prices.applications, along with high performance at affordable prices.
Intel Xeon processor-based workstations are expected toIntel Xeon processor-based workstations are expected to
achieve performance increases between 30 and 90 percentachieve performance increases between 30 and 90 percent
over systems featuring Intel® Pentium® III Xeon™over systems featuring Intel® Pentium® III Xeon™
processors depending on applications and configurations. Theprocessors depending on applications and configurations. The
processor is based on the Intel NetBurst™ architecture, whichprocessor is based on the Intel NetBurst™ architecture, which
is designed to deliver the processing power needed for videois designed to deliver the processing power needed for video
and audio applications, advanced Internet technologies, andand audio applications, advanced Internet technologies, and
complex 3-D graphics.complex 3-D graphics.
40. 2001: Intel® Itanium™ Processor2001: Intel® Itanium™ Processor
The Itanium™ processor is the first in a family of 64-The Itanium™ processor is the first in a family of 64-
bit products from Intel. Designed for high-end,bit products from Intel. Designed for high-end,
enterprise-class servers and workstations, theenterprise-class servers and workstations, the
processor was built from the ground up with anprocessor was built from the ground up with an
entirely new architecture based on Intel's Explicitlyentirely new architecture based on Intel's Explicitly
Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC) designParallel Instruction Computing (EPIC) design
technology. The processor delivers world-classtechnology. The processor delivers world-class
performance for the most demanding enterprise andperformance for the most demanding enterprise and
high-performance computing applications, includinghigh-performance computing applications, including
e-Commerce security transactions, large databases,e-Commerce security transactions, large databases,
mechanical computer-aided engineering, andmechanical computer-aided engineering, and
sophisticated scientific and engineering computing.sophisticated scientific and engineering computing.
41. 2002: Intel® Itanium™ 2 Processor2002: Intel® Itanium™ 2 Processor
The Itanium™ 2 processor is the secondThe Itanium™ 2 processor is the second
member of the Itanium processor family, a linemember of the Itanium processor family, a line
of enterprise-class processors. The familyof enterprise-class processors. The family
brings outstanding performance and thebrings outstanding performance and the
volume economics of the Intel® Architecturevolume economics of the Intel® Architecture
to the most data-intensive, business-criticalto the most data-intensive, business-critical
and technical computing applications. Itand technical computing applications. It
provides leading performance for databases,provides leading performance for databases,
computer-aided engineering, secure onlinecomputer-aided engineering, secure online
transactions, and more.transactions, and more.
42. 2003: Intel® Pentium® M Processor2003: Intel® Pentium® M Processor
The Intel® Pentium® M processor, the Intel®The Intel® Pentium® M processor, the Intel®
855 chipset family, and the Intel®855 chipset family, and the Intel®
PRO/Wireless 2100 network connection arePRO/Wireless 2100 network connection are
the three components of Intel® Centrino™the three components of Intel® Centrino™
mobile technology. Intel Centrino mobilemobile technology. Intel Centrino mobile
technology is designed specifically fortechnology is designed specifically for
portable computing, with built-in wirelessportable computing, with built-in wireless
LAN capability and breakthrough mobileLAN capability and breakthrough mobile
performance. It enables extended battery lifeperformance. It enables extended battery life
and thinner, lighter mobile computers.and thinner, lighter mobile computers.
43. Assembly Language forAssembly Language for
the Intel 8086the Intel 8086
Information taken fromInformation taken from
http://www.emu8086.com/Help/asm_http://www.emu8086.com/Help/asm_
tutorial_01.htmltutorial_01.html
45. GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERSGENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
8086 CPU has 8 general purpose registers, each register has its8086 CPU has 8 general purpose registers, each register has its
own name:own name:
AXAX - the accumulator register (divided into- the accumulator register (divided into AH / ALAH / AL).).
BXBX - the base address register (divided into- the base address register (divided into BH / BLBH / BL).).
CXCX - the count register (divided into- the count register (divided into CH / CLCH / CL).).
DXDX - the data register (divided into- the data register (divided into DH / DLDH / DL).).
SISI - source index register.- source index register.
DIDI - destination index register.- destination index register.
BPBP - base pointer.- base pointer.
SPSP - stack pointer.- stack pointer.
46. SEGMENT REGISTERSSEGMENT REGISTERS
CSCS - points at the segment containing the- points at the segment containing the
current program.current program.
DSDS - generally points at segment where- generally points at segment where
variables are defined.variables are defined.
ESES - extra segment register, it's up to a coder- extra segment register, it's up to a coder
to define its usage.to define its usage.
SSSS - points at the segment containing the- points at the segment containing the
stack.stack.
47. SPECIAL PURPOSE REGISTERSSPECIAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
IPIP - the instruction pointer.- the instruction pointer.
Flags RegisterFlags Register - determines the current state of the processor.- determines the current state of the processor.
IPIP register always works together withregister always works together with CSCS segment registersegment register
and it points to currently executing instruction.and it points to currently executing instruction.
Flags RegisterFlags Register is modified automatically by CPU afteris modified automatically by CPU after
mathematical operations, this allows to determine the type ofmathematical operations, this allows to determine the type of
the result, and to determine conditions to transfer control tothe result, and to determine conditions to transfer control to
other parts of the program.other parts of the program.
Generally you cannot access these registers directly.Generally you cannot access these registers directly.
48. As you may see there are 16 bits in this register, each bit is called aAs you may see there are 16 bits in this register, each bit is called a flagflag andand
can take a value ofcan take a value of 11 oror 00..
Carry Flag (CF)Carry Flag (CF) - this flag is set to- this flag is set to 11 when there is anwhen there is an unsigned overflowunsigned overflow..
For example when you add bytesFor example when you add bytes 255 + 1255 + 1 (result is not in range 0...255).(result is not in range 0...255).
When there is no overflow this flag is set toWhen there is no overflow this flag is set to 00..
Zero Flag (ZF)Zero Flag (ZF) - set to- set to 11 when result iswhen result is zerozero. For none zero result this flag. For none zero result this flag
is set tois set to 00..
Sign Flag (SF)Sign Flag (SF) - set to- set to 11 when result iswhen result is negativenegative. When result is. When result is positivepositive itit
is set tois set to 00. Actually this flag take the value of the most significant bit.. Actually this flag take the value of the most significant bit.
Overflow Flag (OF)Overflow Flag (OF) - set to- set to 11 when there is awhen there is a signed overflowsigned overflow. For. For
example, when you add bytesexample, when you add bytes 100 + 50100 + 50 (result is not in range -128...127).(result is not in range -128...127).
Parity Flag (PF)Parity Flag (PF) - this flag is set to- this flag is set to 11 when there is even number of onewhen there is even number of one
bits in result, and tobits in result, and to 00 when there is odd number of one bits. Even if resultwhen there is odd number of one bits. Even if result
is a word only 8 low bits are analyzed!is a word only 8 low bits are analyzed!
Auxiliary Flag (AF)Auxiliary Flag (AF) - set to- set to 11 when there is anwhen there is an unsigned overflowunsigned overflow for lowfor low
nibble (4 bits).nibble (4 bits).
Interrupt enable Flag (IF)Interrupt enable Flag (IF) - when this flag is set to- when this flag is set to 11 CPU reacts toCPU reacts to
interrupts from external devices.interrupts from external devices.
Direction Flag (DF)Direction Flag (DF) - this flag is used by some instructions to process data- this flag is used by some instructions to process data
chains, when this flag is set tochains, when this flag is set to 00 - the processing is done forward, when- the processing is done forward, when
this flag is set tothis flag is set to 11 the processing is done backward.the processing is done backward.
49. There are 3 groups of instructions.There are 3 groups of instructions.
First group:First group: ADDADD,, SUBSUB,,CMPCMP,, ANDAND,, TESTTEST,,
OROR,, XORXOR
Second group:Second group: MULMUL,, IMULIMUL,, DIVDIV,, IDIVIDIV
Third group:Third group: INCINC,, DECDEC,, NOTNOT,, NEGNEG
50. #MAKE_COM# ; instruct compiler to make COM file.
ORG 100h ; The sub-function that we are using
; does not modify the AH register on
; return, so we may set it only once.
MOV AH, 0Eh ; select sub-function.
; INT 10h / 0Eh sub-function
; receives an ASCII code of the
; character that will be printed
; in AL register.
MOV AL, 'H‘ ; ASCII code: 72
INT 10h ; print it!
MOV AL, 'e' ; ASCII code: 101
INT 10h ; print it!
MOV AL, 'l' ; ASCII code: 108
INT 10h ; print it!
MOV AL, 'l' ; ASCII code: 108
INT 10h ; print it!
MOV AL, 'o' ; ASCII code: 111
INT 10h ; print it!
MOV AL, '!' ; ASCII code: 33
INT 10h ; print it!
RET ; returns to operating system.
51.
52. ORG 100hORG 100h
MOV AX, 5MOV AX, 5 ; set AX to 5.; set AX to 5.
MOV BX, 2MOV BX, 2 ; set BX to 2.; set BX to 2.
JMP calcJMP calc ; go to 'calc'.; go to 'calc'.
back: JMP stopback: JMP stop ; go to 'stop'.; go to 'stop'.
calc:calc:
ADD AX, BXADD AX, BX ; add BX to AX.; add BX to AX.
JMP backJMP back ; go 'back'.; go 'back'.
stop:stop:
RETRET ; return to operating system.; return to operating system.
ENDEND ; directive to stop the compiler.; directive to stop the compiler.
53. include emu8086.incinclude emu8086.inc
ORG 100hORG 100h
MOV AL, 25MOV AL, 25 ; set AL to 25.; set AL to 25.
MOV BL, 10MOV BL, 10 ; set BL to 10.; set BL to 10.
CMP AL, BLCMP AL, BL ; compare AL - BL.; compare AL - BL.
JE equalJE equal ; jump if AL = BL (ZF = 1).; jump if AL = BL (ZF = 1).
PUTC 'N'PUTC 'N' ; if it gets here, then AL <> BL,; if it gets here, then AL <> BL,
JMP stopJMP stop ; so print 'N', and jump to stop.; so print 'N', and jump to stop.
equal:equal: ; if gets here,; if gets here,
PUTC 'Y'PUTC 'Y' ; then AL = BL, so print 'Y'.; then AL = BL, so print 'Y'.
stop:stop:
RETRET ; gets here no matter what.; gets here no matter what.
ENDEND
54. include emu8086.incinclude emu8086.inc
ORG 100hORG 100h
MOV AL, 25MOV AL, 25 ; set AL to 25.; set AL to 25.
MOV BL, 10MOV BL, 10 ; set BL to 10.; set BL to 10.
CMP AL, BLCMP AL, BL ; compare AL - BL.; compare AL - BL.
JNE not_equalJNE not_equal ; jump if AL <> BL (ZF = 0).; jump if AL <> BL (ZF = 0).
JMP equalJMP equal
not_equal:not_equal:
; let's assume that here we; let's assume that here we
; have a code that is assembled; have a code that is assembled
; to more than 127 bytes...; to more than 127 bytes...
PUTC 'N'PUTC 'N' ; if it gets here, then AL <> BL,; if it gets here, then AL <> BL,
JMP stopJMP stop
; so print 'N', and jump to stop.; so print 'N', and jump to stop.
equal:equal: ; if gets here,; if gets here,
PUTC 'Y'PUTC 'Y' ; then AL = BL, so print 'Y'.; then AL = BL, so print 'Y'.
stop:stop:
RETRET ; gets here no matter what. END; gets here no matter what. END
56. ORG 100hORG 100h
MOV AL, 1MOV AL, 1
MOV BL, 2MOV BL, 2
CALL m2CALL m2
CALL m2CALL m2
CALL m2CALL m2
CALL m2CALL m2
RETRET ; return to operating system.; return to operating system.
m2 PROCm2 PROC
MUL BLMUL BL ; AX = AL * BL.; AX = AL * BL.
RETRET ; return to caller.; return to caller.
m2 ENDPm2 ENDP
ENDEND
57. ORG 100hORG 100h
LEA SI, msg ; load address of msg to SI.LEA SI, msg ; load address of msg to SI.
CALL print_meCALL print_me
RETRET ; return to operating system.; return to operating system.
; =====================================================; =====================================================
; this procedure prints a string, the string should be null; this procedure prints a string, the string should be null
; terminated (have zero in the end),; terminated (have zero in the end),
; the string address should be in SI register:; the string address should be in SI register:
print_me PROCprint_me PROC
next_char:next_char:
CMP b.[SI], 0CMP b.[SI], 0 ; check for zero to stop; check for zero to stop
JE stopJE stop ;;
MOV AL, [SI]MOV AL, [SI] ; next get ASCII char.; next get ASCII char.
MOV AH, 0EhMOV AH, 0Eh ; teletype function number.; teletype function number.
INT 10hINT 10h ; using interrupt to print a char in AL.; using interrupt to print a char in AL.
ADD SI, 1ADD SI, 1 ; advance index of string array.; advance index of string array.
JMP next_charJMP next_char ; go back, and type another char.; go back, and type another char.
stop:stop:
RETRET ; return to caller.; return to caller.
print_me ENDPprint_me ENDP
; ==========================================================; ==========================================================
msg DB 'Hello World!', 0msg DB 'Hello World!', 0 ; null terminated string.; null terminated string.
ENDEND