The document provides an introduction to microprocessors, including:
- A microprocessor is an integrated circuit containing millions of transistors that can process data according to programmed instructions. Examples include Intel, AMD, and PowerPC processors.
- The three basic functions of a microprocessor are to fetch instructions from memory, decode what the instructions mean, and execute the instructions.
- Key components include the ALU for arithmetic/logic operations, control unit for flow control, and registers for temporary storage.
- Early Intel processors included the 4-bit 4004 and 8-bit 8008, while the 16-bit 8086 was the first in the x86 architecture still used today.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from discrete components to integrated circuits. The key components of a microprocessor like the CPU, ALU, and memory are described. Microcontroller fundamentals like PIC microcontrollers and their architecture are also covered. Common applications of microprocessors and microcontrollers are in devices like appliances, automobiles, and industrial control systems. Leading manufacturers of microprocessors and microcontrollers are mentioned.
Introduction – Multiple tasks and multiple processes – Multirate systems- Preemptive realtime operating systems- Priority based scheduling- Interprocess communication mechanisms – Evaluating operating system performance- power optimization strategies for processes –Example Real time operating systems-POSIX-Windows CE. – Distributed embedded systems – MPSoCs and shared memory multiprocessors. – Design Example – Audio player, Engine control unit – Video accelerator.
The document provides information about a microprocessor and microcontroller course. It includes details about the 8086 microprocessor such as its architecture, registers, buses, instruction set, and flag register. It discusses the 8086's internal architecture which consists of a bus interface unit and execution unit. The execution unit decodes and executes instructions, and contains components like the ALU, general purpose registers, and flag register. The document also provides a brief history of microprocessor development from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors to modern 64-bit processors.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The CPU, or processor, carries out the instructions of a computer program and is the primary component responsible for a computer's functions. As microelectronic technology advanced, more transistors were placed on integrated circuits, decreasing the number of chips needed for a complete CPU. Processor registers provide the fastest way for a CPU to access data and are located at the top of the memory hierarchy. Common processor architectures include the ARM architecture which has influenced the design of many CPUs due to its low power consumption and flexibility.
The document discusses the Intel 80286 microprocessor. It introduces the 80286 as a 16-bit microprocessor introduced in 1982 with separate address and data buses. It had approximately 134,000 transistors and clock speeds up to 12.5 MHz. The 80286 supported both real and protected virtual addressing modes, advanced memory management, and was compatible with the 8086 instruction set. It had features like 4-level memory protection and could address up to 16MB of physical memory or 1GB of virtual memory.
based on stored program design
processor system
CPU
memory
input/output system
input/output devices
secondary storage
manages the instruction-execution cycle
FETCH – DECODE – EXECUTE
coordinates the activities of other devices
DDR - SDRAMs are classified into different types including SDRAM, DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4. SDRAM synchronizes itself with the CPU timing to allow for faster memory access. DDR1 allows for higher transfer rates through double pumping of the data bus. DDR2 further increases speeds through lower power usage and internal clock running at half the external clock rate. DDR3 and DDR4 continue to improve speeds and bandwidth through higher data transfer rates and lower voltage requirements. Each new generation is not compatible with previous types due to changes in signaling and interfaces.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from discrete components to integrated circuits. The key components of a microprocessor like the CPU, ALU, and memory are described. Microcontroller fundamentals like PIC microcontrollers and their architecture are also covered. Common applications of microprocessors and microcontrollers are in devices like appliances, automobiles, and industrial control systems. Leading manufacturers of microprocessors and microcontrollers are mentioned.
Introduction – Multiple tasks and multiple processes – Multirate systems- Preemptive realtime operating systems- Priority based scheduling- Interprocess communication mechanisms – Evaluating operating system performance- power optimization strategies for processes –Example Real time operating systems-POSIX-Windows CE. – Distributed embedded systems – MPSoCs and shared memory multiprocessors. – Design Example – Audio player, Engine control unit – Video accelerator.
The document provides information about a microprocessor and microcontroller course. It includes details about the 8086 microprocessor such as its architecture, registers, buses, instruction set, and flag register. It discusses the 8086's internal architecture which consists of a bus interface unit and execution unit. The execution unit decodes and executes instructions, and contains components like the ALU, general purpose registers, and flag register. The document also provides a brief history of microprocessor development from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors to modern 64-bit processors.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The CPU, or processor, carries out the instructions of a computer program and is the primary component responsible for a computer's functions. As microelectronic technology advanced, more transistors were placed on integrated circuits, decreasing the number of chips needed for a complete CPU. Processor registers provide the fastest way for a CPU to access data and are located at the top of the memory hierarchy. Common processor architectures include the ARM architecture which has influenced the design of many CPUs due to its low power consumption and flexibility.
The document discusses the Intel 80286 microprocessor. It introduces the 80286 as a 16-bit microprocessor introduced in 1982 with separate address and data buses. It had approximately 134,000 transistors and clock speeds up to 12.5 MHz. The 80286 supported both real and protected virtual addressing modes, advanced memory management, and was compatible with the 8086 instruction set. It had features like 4-level memory protection and could address up to 16MB of physical memory or 1GB of virtual memory.
based on stored program design
processor system
CPU
memory
input/output system
input/output devices
secondary storage
manages the instruction-execution cycle
FETCH – DECODE – EXECUTE
coordinates the activities of other devices
DDR - SDRAMs are classified into different types including SDRAM, DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4. SDRAM synchronizes itself with the CPU timing to allow for faster memory access. DDR1 allows for higher transfer rates through double pumping of the data bus. DDR2 further increases speeds through lower power usage and internal clock running at half the external clock rate. DDR3 and DDR4 continue to improve speeds and bandwidth through higher data transfer rates and lower voltage requirements. Each new generation is not compatible with previous types due to changes in signaling and interfaces.
A motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that connects the central processing unit and RAM to other components like expansion cards and ports. It contains chipsets to interface with peripherals and components like the CPU socket, memory slots, expansion slots for graphics and other cards, and front panel connectors. Key factors in motherboards include the form factor like ATX or Mini-ITX and components like the northbridge and southbridge chips that connect different parts of the system.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The document summarizes the Intel 80386 microprocessor, which was introduced in 1985. It discusses the key features and architecture of both the 80386DX and 80386SX versions. The 80386 was Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor and supported addressing up to 4GB of physical memory and 64TB of virtual memory using segmentation and paging. It had several operating modes and instruction sets to support multitasking and memory protection in protected mode.
Unit 1 Introduction to Embedded computing and ARM processorVenkat Ramanan C
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED COMPUTING AND ARM PROCESSORS
Complex systems and microprocessors – Embedded system design process – Formalism for system design– Design example: Model train controller- ARM Processor Fundamentals- Instruction Set and Programming using ARM Processor.
The document discusses the organization and operation of dynamic random access memory (DRAM). DRAM uses capacitors to store bits of data in memory cells that must be periodically refreshed. It describes how DRAM cells are arranged in a grid structure with rows and columns, and how row and column addresses are used to access individual cells. The document also explains techniques like fast page mode that allow for faster access to blocks of data within the same row without needing to reselect the row address.
A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit or chip and is the heart of every computer. Ever since the 1980s, advertisements for personal computers have made a big deal about the microprocessors inside the box, even though every computer relies on dozens of other integrated circuits to work properly. But when it was first invented, engineers thought that the microprocessor would be an entire computer on a chip.
This document discusses the evolution and key specifications of Intel microprocessors. It begins with an overview of microprocessors in general and Intel's role in their development. Key Intel processors are then outlined chronologically from the 4004 in 1971 to the present day Core i7. Each new generation introduced improvements like increased processing power, additional features, and reduced transistor size. The document provides concise details on the characteristics of important processors in Intel's history and how they advanced computing capabilities over time.
AMD is an American semiconductor company and the second largest supplier of microprocessors based on the x86 architecture after Intel. It develops computer processors and graphics cards. AMD was founded in 1969 and initially produced logic chips. In the 1980s, AMD began producing clones of Intel CPUs like the 286 and 386 under an agreement but this was later cancelled by Intel. AMD went on to produce its own CPUs like the K5, K6 and Athlon series to compete directly with Intel's offerings. It acquired ATI in 2006 to strengthen its graphics card business against Nvidia.
The 80386 microprocessor was Intel's 32-bit processor introduced in 1985. It had several improvements over the 80286 including a 32-bit external data bus, increased virtual memory support up to 4GB using segmentation and paging, and faster instruction execution via parallel pipelining. The 80386 came in two versions - the 80386DX with a full 32-bit external data bus, and the lower-cost 80386SX which had a 16-bit data bus. It found use in personal computers and some embedded applications like early mobile phones and spacecraft due to its power and multitasking capabilities.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors, including what they are, their basic components and functions. It discusses how a microprocessor:
- Acts as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to provide computational control
- Can be programmed to perform functions on data by writing instructions into its memory
- Has components like an arithmetic logic unit, registers, cache memory and bus interfaces to transfer data and addresses
This ppt explains in brief what actually is arm processor and it covers the first 3 chapters of book "ARM SYSTEM DEVELOPERS GUIDE". The 3 chapters include the history,architecture,instruction set etc.
The Pentium processor introduced in 1993 features a superscalar architecture that allows multiple instructions to be executed simultaneously. It has separate 8KB instruction and data caches and a 64-bit data bus. The Pentium uses dynamic branch prediction and out-of-order execution to further improve performance through superscalar design.
This document provides an introduction to AVR microcontrollers. It discusses the history of microcontrollers beginning in 1971 and components like CPU, ROM, RAM and I/O. AVR microcontrollers were introduced in 1996 and range from 1 to 256KB with 8 to 100 pins. They are cheaper and slower than microprocessors but are useful for specialized applications. The document outlines the AVR architecture and family as well as development tools and support for AVR microcontrollers.
The DMA controller (8257) allows data transfer between I/O devices and memory without CPU involvement. It has 4 independent channels that can be programmed to transfer data via DMA read, write, or verify operations. The 8257 interfaces with the 8085 microprocessor by controlling address/data buses and generating control signals during DMA cycles when it acts as the bus master.
The document discusses the different modes of the 80386 processor: Real Mode which allows direct access to memory and I/O but no protection; Protected Mode which allows features like virtual memory and paging for increased security and multi-tasking by enabling descriptor tables and the PE bit; and Virtual Mode which allows real mode applications to run on protected mode systems by virtualizing memory.
About Cache Memory
working of cache memory
levels of cache memory
mapping techniques for cache memory
1. direct mapping techniques
2. Fully associative mapping techniques
3. set associative mapping techniques
Cache memroy organization
cache coherency
every thing in detail
The document traces the history and development of microprocessors from 1971 to the present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor released in 1971. Important subsequent microprocessors included the Intel 8080 in 1974 and 8085 in 1977. The Pentium brand was introduced in 1993 and included 64-bit x86 instruction sets. The Core 2 brand from 2006 featured single, dual, and quad-core processors. The document also provides basic explanations of how microprocessors work and their components like the ALU, registers, and control unit.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors from 1971 to 2002. It describes several generations of Intel microprocessors including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086/8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium IV. For each microprocessor, it provides the year of introduction, bits, memory capacity, clock speed, and key improvements over previous generations that expanded capabilities and performance. The document traces the technological progression from 4-bit to 32-bit processors over this time period.
A motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that connects the central processing unit and RAM to other components like expansion cards and ports. It contains chipsets to interface with peripherals and components like the CPU socket, memory slots, expansion slots for graphics and other cards, and front panel connectors. Key factors in motherboards include the form factor like ATX or Mini-ITX and components like the northbridge and southbridge chips that connect different parts of the system.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The document summarizes the Intel 80386 microprocessor, which was introduced in 1985. It discusses the key features and architecture of both the 80386DX and 80386SX versions. The 80386 was Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor and supported addressing up to 4GB of physical memory and 64TB of virtual memory using segmentation and paging. It had several operating modes and instruction sets to support multitasking and memory protection in protected mode.
Unit 1 Introduction to Embedded computing and ARM processorVenkat Ramanan C
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED COMPUTING AND ARM PROCESSORS
Complex systems and microprocessors – Embedded system design process – Formalism for system design– Design example: Model train controller- ARM Processor Fundamentals- Instruction Set and Programming using ARM Processor.
The document discusses the organization and operation of dynamic random access memory (DRAM). DRAM uses capacitors to store bits of data in memory cells that must be periodically refreshed. It describes how DRAM cells are arranged in a grid structure with rows and columns, and how row and column addresses are used to access individual cells. The document also explains techniques like fast page mode that allow for faster access to blocks of data within the same row without needing to reselect the row address.
A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit or chip and is the heart of every computer. Ever since the 1980s, advertisements for personal computers have made a big deal about the microprocessors inside the box, even though every computer relies on dozens of other integrated circuits to work properly. But when it was first invented, engineers thought that the microprocessor would be an entire computer on a chip.
This document discusses the evolution and key specifications of Intel microprocessors. It begins with an overview of microprocessors in general and Intel's role in their development. Key Intel processors are then outlined chronologically from the 4004 in 1971 to the present day Core i7. Each new generation introduced improvements like increased processing power, additional features, and reduced transistor size. The document provides concise details on the characteristics of important processors in Intel's history and how they advanced computing capabilities over time.
AMD is an American semiconductor company and the second largest supplier of microprocessors based on the x86 architecture after Intel. It develops computer processors and graphics cards. AMD was founded in 1969 and initially produced logic chips. In the 1980s, AMD began producing clones of Intel CPUs like the 286 and 386 under an agreement but this was later cancelled by Intel. AMD went on to produce its own CPUs like the K5, K6 and Athlon series to compete directly with Intel's offerings. It acquired ATI in 2006 to strengthen its graphics card business against Nvidia.
The 80386 microprocessor was Intel's 32-bit processor introduced in 1985. It had several improvements over the 80286 including a 32-bit external data bus, increased virtual memory support up to 4GB using segmentation and paging, and faster instruction execution via parallel pipelining. The 80386 came in two versions - the 80386DX with a full 32-bit external data bus, and the lower-cost 80386SX which had a 16-bit data bus. It found use in personal computers and some embedded applications like early mobile phones and spacecraft due to its power and multitasking capabilities.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors, including what they are, their basic components and functions. It discusses how a microprocessor:
- Acts as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to provide computational control
- Can be programmed to perform functions on data by writing instructions into its memory
- Has components like an arithmetic logic unit, registers, cache memory and bus interfaces to transfer data and addresses
This ppt explains in brief what actually is arm processor and it covers the first 3 chapters of book "ARM SYSTEM DEVELOPERS GUIDE". The 3 chapters include the history,architecture,instruction set etc.
The Pentium processor introduced in 1993 features a superscalar architecture that allows multiple instructions to be executed simultaneously. It has separate 8KB instruction and data caches and a 64-bit data bus. The Pentium uses dynamic branch prediction and out-of-order execution to further improve performance through superscalar design.
This document provides an introduction to AVR microcontrollers. It discusses the history of microcontrollers beginning in 1971 and components like CPU, ROM, RAM and I/O. AVR microcontrollers were introduced in 1996 and range from 1 to 256KB with 8 to 100 pins. They are cheaper and slower than microprocessors but are useful for specialized applications. The document outlines the AVR architecture and family as well as development tools and support for AVR microcontrollers.
The DMA controller (8257) allows data transfer between I/O devices and memory without CPU involvement. It has 4 independent channels that can be programmed to transfer data via DMA read, write, or verify operations. The 8257 interfaces with the 8085 microprocessor by controlling address/data buses and generating control signals during DMA cycles when it acts as the bus master.
The document discusses the different modes of the 80386 processor: Real Mode which allows direct access to memory and I/O but no protection; Protected Mode which allows features like virtual memory and paging for increased security and multi-tasking by enabling descriptor tables and the PE bit; and Virtual Mode which allows real mode applications to run on protected mode systems by virtualizing memory.
About Cache Memory
working of cache memory
levels of cache memory
mapping techniques for cache memory
1. direct mapping techniques
2. Fully associative mapping techniques
3. set associative mapping techniques
Cache memroy organization
cache coherency
every thing in detail
The document traces the history and development of microprocessors from 1971 to the present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor released in 1971. Important subsequent microprocessors included the Intel 8080 in 1974 and 8085 in 1977. The Pentium brand was introduced in 1993 and included 64-bit x86 instruction sets. The Core 2 brand from 2006 featured single, dual, and quad-core processors. The document also provides basic explanations of how microprocessors work and their components like the ALU, registers, and control unit.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors from 1971 to 2002. It describes several generations of Intel microprocessors including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086/8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium IV. For each microprocessor, it provides the year of introduction, bits, memory capacity, clock speed, and key improvements over previous generations that expanded capabilities and performance. The document traces the technological progression from 4-bit to 32-bit processors over this time period.
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This document provides a historical overview of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 2002. It describes the evolution of microprocessors from 4-bit to 32-bit designs with increasing memory capacity and performance improvements over time. Key microprocessors discussed include the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086/8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium IV. The document also provides background on the von Neumann machine concept and components of a basic computer system including memory, I/O, the ALU, control unit, registers, and bus.
This document provides a historical overview of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 2002. It describes the key specifications and improvements of each generation, including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086/8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium IV microprocessors. The evolution of microprocessors progressed from 4-bit to 8-bit to 16-bit and 32-bit designs, with increasing memory capacity, clock speed, and additional features like memory management and floating point support.
This document provides an introduction to microcomputers and microprocessors. It discusses how a microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU) of a microcomputer. A microcomputer system consists of a CPU (microprocessor), memory, and input/output devices connected by buses. The document then traces the evolution of microprocessors from the first 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to more advanced 32-bit and 64-bit processors over subsequent decades. It provides details on characteristics of important processors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium series. The document concludes with information on the internal structure of the Intel 8085 microprocessor.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of microprocessors from the early Intel 4004 microprocessor in 1971 to modern multi-core processors. It describes several generations of Intel microprocessors including the 8-bit 8080 and 8085, early 16-bit processors like the 8086 and 8088, the 32-bit 80386, and the Pentium series which introduced superscalar and parallel processing. It also discusses Intel partnering with HP to develop the 64-bit Itanium architecture and the introduction of dual-core and quad-core processors like the Pentium Dual-Core and Core 2 Quad.
This document provides an overview of microprocessor architectures and their evolution from the first microprocessor developed by Intel in 1971 to more recent developments. It begins with an introduction to microprocessor architecture and components of a microcomputer system. Subsequent sections describe the evolution of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessors developed by Intel and other companies. Examples of assembly language programs for addition are also provided.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers both have CPUs and are used for real-time applications, but they differ in key ways. Microprocessors are standalone chips that require external memory and I/O devices, have higher clock speeds, and are more versatile. Microcontrollers integrate CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip, have lower clock speeds, and are cheaper and used for embedded systems. The 8085 was an early 8-bit microprocessor from Intel that had 40 pins, accessed 64KB of memory, and was used in early PCs and instruments.
The document discusses the history of microprocessors from 1971 to present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercially available microprocessor with 2300 transistors. Important subsequent microprocessors discussed include the Intel 8008, 8080, 8085, Pentium, and Core 2. The document explains the basic components of a microprocessor including the ALU, register array, and control unit. It describes how a microprocessor works by fetching, decoding, and executing instructions from memory.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document discusses the history and development of microprocessors from the Intel 4004 in 1971 to Intel dual core processors in 2006. It provides details on key processors such as the 8008, 8080, 8086, 8088, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, and dual core/Core 2 processors. It describes features such as clock speed, number of transistors, cache memory, and architecture of various processors over time.
A microprocessor is a tiny piece of silicon containing millions of transistors that can perform the functions of electronic devices. The first commercial microprocessor was the Intel 4004 from 1971. As technology advanced, microprocessors increased in power and performance with higher bit sizes and more transistors. A microprocessor has a control unit that directs other components like a bus interface unit, execution unit, registers, and cache to fetch and execute instructions. Computing occurs as the instruction fetch and decode unit obtains instructions from cache, which are then operated on by the ALU or FPU and results are written to registers or cache. Microprocessors are essential components that control modern electronic systems.
A processor is the main component of a computer that executes arithmetic and logical operations at high speeds. Processors have transistors on a single integrated circuit and determine a system's computing power. The first processors introduced were 4-bit and 8-bit models by Intel and Robert Noyce in the early 1970s, while 32-bit processors launched in 1986 marked the beginning of modern processors. Processors are either CISC or RISC architectures and major manufacturers include Intel and AMD.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several key processors throughout history like the Intel 8085, an 8-bit processor that was popular in the late 1970s/early 1980s. The document also provides details on the architecture and features of the Intel 8085 microprocessor, including its registers, ALU, address and data buses, instruction set, and interrupt handling capabilities.
The document discusses the fundamentals of programming with C++, including an introduction to programming concepts like algorithms and pseudocode, an overview of the software development life cycle and its steps, and getting started with C++ by setting up tools and environments and writing a simple "Hello World!" program. It provides background on C++ and explains why it is a widely used language for developing applications requiring performance and efficiency.
This document provides an overview of JSON and AJAX. It defines JSON as a syntax for storing and exchanging data that is easier to use than XML. The document compares JSON and XML and provides examples of JSON syntax including objects, arrays, and strings. It also explains how AJAX allows asynchronous data exchange in the background to update parts of a web page without reloading. The core XMLHttpRequest object and jQuery methods for AJAX requests are described.
This document provides an overview of jQuery, including:
- What jQuery is and its main features like DOM manipulation, CSS manipulation, events, effects, animations, and AJAX.
- How to include jQuery via downloading or using a CDN.
- The basic jQuery syntax of $(selector).action() to select elements and perform actions.
- Common selectors like id, class, and element selectors.
- Methods for hiding, showing, fading, sliding, adding/removing content and classes.
- How events and chaining allow combining multiple actions.
This document discusses Dynamic HTML (DHTML) and JavaScript. It defines DHTML as the combination of HTML, JavaScript, CSS, and the DOM to create animated and interactive web pages. It describes the DOM as a standard for accessing and manipulating HTML and XML documents as tree structures. The chapter then explains JavaScript and how it can be used with the DOM to dynamically access and update HTML content, structure, and style. It provides examples of common JavaScript methods and properties for manipulating the DOM, interacting with browsers, and displaying data.
Bootstrap is a free front-end framework that provides HTML and CSS templates for typography, forms, buttons, navigation, and other interface components to help speed up and simplify web development. It is mobile-first, responsive, and compatible across browsers. Developers can include Bootstrap via direct download or CDN link, and it features a grid system, contextual classes, buttons, tables, images, forms, and menus to build user interfaces.
The document discusses advanced CSS3 topics including custom CSS properties, responsive page layouts using Flexboxes, Grids, and media queries. It covers defining CSS variables, using the var() function, inheritance of custom properties. Flexbox concepts like flex containers, items, properties like flex-direction, justify-content are explained. CSS Grid layout system including grid-template-columns/rows properties and grid line placement is covered. Media queries allow defining styles for different viewports using expressions. CSS preprocessors like Sass are also summarized, covering features such as variables, nesting, imports, mixins and extends to reduce repetition in CSS.
This document provides an introduction to CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), including what CSS is, why it is used, its history and syntax. It describes CSS selectors, properties, and different methods of attaching style definitions. It also covers the CSS box model and properties for styling text, links, lists, backgrounds, borders, margins and paddings.
The document provides an overview of HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) including that it is a markup language used to define elements in a web page using tags, describes common HTML tags for headings, paragraphs, lists, links, and tables, and covers basic HTML page structure and syntax such as the <html>, <head>, <body> tags.
The document provides an overview of HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). It discusses the history and development of the internet and world wide web. It describes the client-server model used by HTTP and key concepts like URLs, DNS, HTTP requests and responses. It explains how browsers and web servers communicate via HTTP to transfer web pages and other resources.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
2. What is Microprocessor?
Is a clock-driven semiconductor made of millions
of microscopic array of electronic
circuits and electronic components (resistors,
capacitors, inductors…) that are diffused or
implanted to surface of small silicon chip
its basic purpose is to take input, process it and then
provide appropriate output
Examples
Intel processors, AMD , PowerPC …
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3. Function of microprocessors
A microprocessor performs three basic steps:
First, it fetches an instruction from memory,
Second, it uses decoding circuitry to determine what the
instruction means (i.e., identify the operations and the
devices involved in it) and
Third, it executes the instruction
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4. Components of microprocessor
ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)
performs all arithmetic and logic operations
Control Unit
Interprets the instructions and generates various timing and
control signals
it controls the flow of data between the μ-processor and
memory & peripherals
Registers
A register is a very small & very fast memory that is built
into the CPU in order to store the current data and
instructions which are being executed by the CPU
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5. Modes of Processing
Real Mode
One program at a time
Protected Mode
Can run more than one program concurrently and protect them
from each other
Virtual Mode
The processor can swap portion of the memory to the hard disk;
in this way programs running concurrently will have more space
to operate
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6. Characteristics of microprocessors
Instruction set
the set of instructions that a microprocessor can understand
or execute
Word length
refers to the number of bits a processor can process at a
time
Eg. a 4-bit processor means the ALU can perform a 4-bit data
operation at a time
the longer the word length is the more powerful the
processor is and can process data at a faster speed as
compared to processor with shorter word length
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7. Characteristics of microprocessors
Speed
measured in HZ = 1cycle/second
Some processors may complete a single instruction per
cycle, or may take one or more cycles
a 2 GHZ CPU may compute 2 billion instructions per second,
if it is able to complete a single instruction in a single cycle
but if it takes 2 cycles to complete a single instruction then it
is only able to compute 1 billion instructions per second
Cache Size
The size of the cache memory
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8. Characteristics of microprocessors …
Size of registers
refers to the number of bits a microprocessor’s register can
hold at a time
the size of addressable memory is often determined by the
width of registers
Data bus width
Refers to the number of bits a data bus can carry at a time
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9. Classes of microprocessors
1. Complex instruction set computer (CISC)
Often contain instructions that perform several different
tasks at a once
Ex: Intel Processors
2. Reduced instruction set computer (RISC)
are made according to the function in which the
microprocessor can carry out small things in a specific
command
In this way these processors completes more commands at a
faster rate
is simpler, smaller and faster
Ex: PowerPC and ARM's Cortex chips
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10. Evolution of Microprocessors
Computing technologies based on vacuum tubes and transistors
In 1959, Fair child semiconductors invented the first integrated circuit
In 1968, Gordan Moore, Robert Noyce & Andrew Grove founded
Intel(Integrated Electronics)
In 1971, the first microprocessor, Intel 4004 was released
In 1972, Intel released the first 8-bit microprocessor Intel 8008
In 1976, MOS technologies introduced the Motorola 6502 an 8-bit
processor, used in Apple I and II
In 1981, the first PC was created by IBM using intel’s 8088 microprocessor
Several companies like Intel, AMD, IBM, ARM, Motorola… make general
purpose processors that are designed for personal computers, laptops,
mobile devices and large central servers
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11. Intel microprocessors
Intel
is generally regarded as the company that sets the
benchmark for others to follow
From the earlier Pentium and Centrino microprocessors to the
Core 2, Core i series
Atom chips for mobiles
The high-end Itanium and Xeon processors for server
applications
Over 90% of laptops use Intel microprocessors
HP, Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony, Toshiba …
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12. Top CPU manufacturers
Intel
AMD
Qualcomm
Mediatek
NVIDIA
IBM
Samsung
Motorola
Hewlett-Packard (hp)
Dell
Acer
…
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14. Intel microprocessors …
4-bits processors
Intel 4004
1971- the first commercially available
processor as well as the first complete
CPU on a single chip
a 4-bit processor: able to operate on 4
bits of data at a time
4-bit data bus
had 2,300 transistors
clock speed of 108KHZ
640 bytes addressable memory
was designed for use in calculator but also
used traffic light controller, Blood
analyzers …
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15. Intel microprocessors …
8-bits processors
Intel 8008
first 8-bit microprocessor
200KHz clock speed and 3,500 transistors,
had 6 , 8-bit registers
8-bit data bus
can address up to 16KB
Intel 8085
was popular as an embedded controller
ran at 5MHZ and contained 6500 transistors
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16. Intel microprocessors …
16-bits processors
Intel 8086
1978,16-bit: all registers, internal and external buses
Used 20-bit addressing
Can address 1 million bytes of internal memory
29,000 transistors, 5MHz initially
Intel 8088
was identical to the 8086 with the exception of its 8-bit
internal bus
The IBM 5150, the first IBM PC, came with the 8088
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17. Intel microprocessors …
16-bits processors
Intel 80286
can operate on real and protected mode
134,000 transistors, 6M-8MHz initially
can address up to 16 million bytes of internal memory
was popular in IBM-PC AT and AT PC clones
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18. Intel microprocessors …
32-bits processors
Intel 80386
the first 32-bit microprocessor
32 bit registers & data bus
can operate on protected mode and supports virtual
mode
275,000 transistors, 12MHz initially, later 33MHz
Intel continued to manufacture the 80386 family until
September of 2007
Intel single-source production of 386 to AMD
Later changed in 1991 by AMD as AM386
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19. Intel microprocessors …
32-bits processors
Intel 80486
32 bit registers and data bus
has a high speed cache memory, 8KB SRAM cache
was launched with 25 to 50 MHz, included 1.2 million
transistors
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20. Intel microprocessors …
32-bits processors
Pentium (Pentium I)
32 bit registers, 64 bit data bus
Has a high speed cache memory
It can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle
Pentium II and III
Have a dual independent bus that provides separate
path to the system cache and memory
On-die L2 cache
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21. Intel microprocessors …
64-bits processors
New instruction set, not at all related to x86.
Itanium
Released May 29, 2001
733 MHz to 800 MHz
2MB cache
Itanium 2
Released July 2002
900 MHz – 1.6 GHz
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22. Intel microprocessors …
64-bits processors
Intel core 2
x86-64 microprocessor
Two cores on one die
Number of transistors: 291 million
64 KB of L1 cache per core
1.86-3.00 GHz
Intel core i series
Intel core i3, i5, i7
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23. Reading Assignment 1
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Micro-processor vs micro-controller
Multi-core processor vs multi-processor
CPU vs GPU
Multi-threading and hyper-threading
Overclocking
24. What is an x86 architecture?
x86 is a family of backward compatible instruction set
architectures based on the Intel 8086 CPU
the term "x86" came into being because the names of
several successors to Intel's 8086 processor end in "86",
including the 80186, 80286, 80386 and 80486 processors
all newer processors using Intel's x86 instruction set are still
referred to as x86, i386, or i686 compatible (which means
they all use extensions of the original 8086 instruction set)
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25. Intel 8086
1978, first x86 family microprocessor
16-bit: all registers, internal and external buses
can address 1 million bytes of internal memory
used 20-bit addressing
to date backward compatibility has been maintained
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26. 8086 Microprocessor Architecture
The Basic Architecture of the Intel 8086
The processor is partitioned into two logical units
Execution Unit (EU)
Bus Interface Unit(BIU)
Why partition is needed?
Because the processor runs considerably faster than
memory
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28. Execution Unit
takes care of the processing including arithmetic and
logic operations
its role is to execute instructions
Contains
ALU,
Control Unit and
Registers
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29. Bus Interface Unit (BIU)
Its role is to deliver instructions and data to the EU
Function
to manage the bus control unit, segment registers and
instruction queue
to provide access to instructions from memory and place
them in an instruction queue, which varies in size depending
on the processor
This feature enables the BIU to look ahead and prefetch instructions
so that there is always a queue of instructions ready to execute
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30. Internal Memory of 8086
Memory consists of cells organized in 8-bit
groups
Bytes in memory are numbered consecutively,
beginning with 00
8086
was able to address 1MB of memory
has 20bits wide memory address
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31. Intel 8086- Memory
RAM
From the 1MB of memory, the first
640K is base RAM
is used for temporary program
storage
ROM
The 8086 Basic Input/Output System
(BIOS) begins at address 768K and
handles
I/O devices, such as a hard disk
controller
ROM beginning at 960K controls the
computer’s basic functions
Power-On Self-Test, dot patterns for
graphics, and the disk self-loader
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32. Memory Segments
Memory segmentation is the division of computer's
primary memory into segments or sections
Segments are special areas defined in a program for
containing the code, the data, and what is known as the
stack
A segment begins on a paragraph boundary, that is, at
a location evenly divisible by 16, or hex 10.
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33. Memory Segments …
In real mode, the three main segments are code, data, and
stack
Code Segment:
Contains the machine instructions to be executed
The first executable instruction is at the start of this segment, and the
operating system links to that location to begin program execution
Data Segment:
Contains a program’s defined data, constants, and work areas
Stack Segment:
Contains any data and addresses that the program needs to save
temporarily for use on subroutines
A program may contain one or more segments, which may
vary in size, and can be defined in any sequence
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34. 8086/8088 Registers
The registers are categorized into two sets:
Data registers
are for calculations
Address registers
used to store memory addresses that point to locations in
memory where data will be retrieved or stored
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35. 8086/8088 Data Registers
aka general purpose registers, these are
AX - Accumulator register
BX - Base register
CX - Counter register
DX - Data register
each are 16-bit long and can also be accessed as two 8-bit
registers
AX AH & AL
BX BH & BL
CX CH & CL
DX DH & DL
The 80386 introduced an extended 32-bit general purpose
registers named EAX, EBX, ECX and EDX
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36. 8086/8088 Data Registers
AX register
is used for operations involving input/output and arithmetic
BX register
given the name base register because it is the only general
purpose register that can be used as an index in indirect
addressing
can also be used for computations
CX register
usually used to control the number of times a loop is repeated or
a value to shift bits left or right in bit shifting operations
can also be used for computations
DX register
is used for operations involving input/output and most arithmetic
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37. 8086/8088 Address Registers
Segment registers: used to store starting address of memory segments
Code Segment register
Data Segment register
Stack Segment register
Extra Segment register
Index registers: used for indexed addressing and string operations
Source Index register
Destination Index register
Pointer registers: used to store offset address within memory segments
Instruction Pointer register
Stack Pointer register
Base Pointer register
All the above address registers are 16-bit long in 8086/8088
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38. 8086/8088 Segment Registers
CS register: used to hold starting
address of program’s code segment
DS register: used to hold starting
address of program’s data segment
SS register: used to hold starting
address of program’s stack segment
ES register: used to hold starting
address of programmers defined
extra data segment
FS and GS registers: additional
extra segment registers introduced
by the 80386
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39. 8086/8088 Pointer Registers
IP (Instruction Pointer) register
used to locate a specific location within the code segment
used to hold offset address of the next instruction to be
executed
SP (Stack Pointer) register
used to hold offset address of the top of the stack segment
points to the current word being processed in the stack
BP (Base Pointer) register
used to point to a specific location in the stack
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40. 8086/8088 Index Registers
SI (Source Index) & DI (Destination Index) registers
are used to locate a specific location within the data
segment
both are used in string handling operations. In this
context, SI is associated with the DS register while DI is
associated with the ES register
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41. Flags Register
Is the status register in Intel x86 microprocessors that shows the current
state of the processor
In 8086 flags register is 16 bits wide, among which 9 are active
They are modified automatically by the processor after instruction
execution, which allows to determine the type of the result and also
conditions to transfer control to other parts of the program
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42. Flags Register …
The flags bits has two groups
Status flags: reflect the result of an operation executed
by the processor
SF, ZF, AF, CF, PF & OF
Control flags: enable or disable certain operations of
the processor
Trap flag (TF)
Interrupt flag (IF)
Direction flag (DF)
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43. Flags Register: Status Flags
SF (Sign): Indicates the resulting sign of an arithmetic operation (0 =
positive and 1 = negative)
ZF (Zero): Indicates the result of an arithmetic or comparison
operation (0 = nonzero and 1 = zero result)
PF (Parity): indicates the number of 1-bits that result from an
operation. (0=even parity and 1 = odd parity)
AF (Auxiliary Carry): contains a carry out of bit 3 into bit 4 in an
arithmetic operation
OF (Overflow): indicates overflow of a high-order(leftmost) bit
following in a signed arithmetic operation
CF(Carry): contains carries from a high-order bit following an
unsigned arithmetic operation; also contains the contents of the last bit
of a shift or rotate operation
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44. Flags Register: control flags
The Interrupt Flag
Indicates that external interrupts, such as keyboard entry, are to be
processed or ignored
Clearing IF (IF=0) disables interrupts
The Direction Flag
Determines left or right direction for moving or comparing string
(character) data
If DF=1, the string instruction will automatically decrement the pointer
The Trap Flag
Permits operation of the processor in single-step mode
Setting TF (TF=1) puts the processor into single step mode for
debugging, where the processor automatically generates an internal
interrupt after each instruction, allowing a program to be inspected as it
executes instruction by instruction
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