magnification, It's definition, types, clinical uses, Uses in Optical instruments like microscopes, telescopes, Uses in Optical instruments like direct Ophthalmoscopes, indirect ophthalmoscopes and slit lamps, In low vision
Detailed instumentaion and use of manual Lensometer and just a outline of automated lensometer.
I have used the picture of manual lensometer with out the parts describtion because i have explained orally by showing the picture..
Hope u all like it and may help you in learning better. :)
Detailed instumentaion and use of manual Lensometer and just a outline of automated lensometer.
I have used the picture of manual lensometer with out the parts describtion because i have explained orally by showing the picture..
Hope u all like it and may help you in learning better. :)
Ophthalmic Prisms: Prismatic Effects and DecentrationRabindraAdhikary
Ophthalmic Prisms: Prismatic Effects and Decentration
here we discuss about the ophthalmic prisms, the prismatic effects as caused by the decentration( moving the optical center away from the visual axis)
Polarization and it's application in OphthalmologyRaju Kaiti
Polarization, types of polarization, mechanisms to produce polarization, Applications of polarization, precautions with polarizing sunglasses, ophthalmic uses of polarization
Color vision physiology, defects and different testing ProceduresRaju Kaiti
Color vision Physiology, Different types of Color vision defects, different testing procedures, trichromatic theory, color opponent theory, inheritance of color vision defect, management of color vision defect
Pediatric Ophthalmic dispensing in different visual problemsRaju Kaiti
Pediatric dispensing, introduction, different from adult dispensing, frame selection, lens selection, special case fitting, Do's and Dont's, Measurements, Down's syndrome, albinism, aphakia, strabismus, syndromes
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
2. Introduction
– An increase in apparent size, perceived size or the
actual size of an object or its image in relation to the
object
– It has no unit since it is a ratio
– Apparent increment in the size of the object when viewed
through the magnifying system
– Magnifying ability = size of retinal image formed with the
aid of the lens /size of retinal image of the object viewed
directly
3. Types
• Linear Magnification
• Angular Magnification
• Nominal and Maximum Angular Magnification
• Iso-accommodative Magnification
4. Linear magnification
• Applies to linear dimensions
• Generally indicated by multilication sign “X”
• LM= I/O= V/U=l’/l
• Object height and image height
– Is measured perpendicularly from the optical axis
– Can be measured from any pair of off-axis conjugate points
• In terms of reduced vergence,
Reduced vergence =1/distance
• M=object vergence/Image vergence
5. Sign convention
• Image inverted with respect to the object-
negative magnification
• Image upright with respect to the object-
positive magnification
6. Angular magnification
Angle subtended at eye by image produced by lens
Angle subtended at unaided eye by object at LDDV(least
distance of distinct vision)
8. Angular magnification
– A plus lens is used as a simple magnifier
– The magnifying ability of the loupe= size of the
retinal image formed with the aid of the lens / that of
the object viewed directly
– General expression for the angular magnification, M
= qL/1-dL’
where q = LDDV,
d = vertex distance
L/L’= object vergence/ image vergence
9. Nominal and maximum angular
magnification
• Two cases of extreme magnification.
1. Image formed by the lens is at infinity
2. Image is formed at the least distance of
distinct vision.
11. • L`= 0, q= -0.25m, L= -F
• M nominal =
F
4
• Nominal magnification or conventional
magnification
• No accommodation is used to see the image by an
emmetropic eye.
• Angular magnification is one- quarter of the lens
power.
12. Case II
• Angular magnification will be maximum
when image is formed at LDDV.
• L’=-0.25m, d=0 then M=(-0.25)(-4-F)
• M max= 1+F/4
• Lower angular magnification is obtained
when the image is formed further than 0.25
m from the eye.
13. Iso-accommodative magnification
• Is the magnification determined considering
same accommodative effort is in act when
eyes are both aided and unaided.
• Misoacc=1-(q+d)F, when image is formed at
LDDV
• As per British standard (BS 5043), d=10cm
and q=-25cm, then
• Misoacc= 1+0.15F
• Represents the practical magnification that
one might attain with a loop.
14. Magnification and the depth of
field
• Increase in magnification limits the depth of
field, so higher the power more critical is its
positioning in relation to the object.
• Flexible for persons with good amplitude of
accommodation.
16. ?????
• A +8.00D loupe is held 5cm in front of the
eye, and is used to view an object placed 8 cm
in front of the lens. Calculate
1. The linear magnification
2. The angular magnification
3. What nominal magnification would be ascribed
to this lens?
17. ?????
• An emmetrope exerting 4D of accommodation
views the image of an object clearly when the
object is 6 cm in front of a +10.00 DS lens.
Calculate the distance between the lens and the eye
and determine the angular magnification.
18. ?????
• A 2.00D Myope uses a +8.00D lens as a loupe. In
order to view the image of an object held in front of
the lens, he accommodates 6.00D. If he holds the
lens 5cm in front of the eye, what angular
magnification does he obtain and what is the
distance between the lens and object?
20. Spectacle and relative spectacle
magnification
• SM= change in retinal image size brought
by correcting lens.
• Ratio of retinal image size with the
correcting lens to that without the
correcting lens.
• SM= retinal image size in corrected eye/basic
height of retinal image in uncorrected eye
• %SM= (SM-1)*100
21. • Depends on 2 factors
• Shape factor and power factor
• SM=
• 1 1
• 1-(t/n)*F1 1-dF`V
22. • F1 = power of the front surface
• F`V= back vertex power
• t = thickness
• n= refractive index
• d = distance from the back vertex and the
entrance pupil of the eye
23. Shape factor
• 1
1-tF1/n
SM increases with increase in front surface
power and increases with increase in
thickness.
SM decreases with decrease in index of
refraction of the lens material.
24. Power Factor
• 1/1-dFv’
Increases with increase in back vertex power
for Plus lens.
Decreases with increase in back vertex
power for minus lens.
If + lens id moved closer to the eye, d
decreases and SM also decreases.
25. • If –lens is moved closer to the eye d
decreases and SM increases
• SM>1 for + lens
• SM<1 for -lens
26. SM and vertex distance
• Retinal image size α Sec. Focal length.
• 1/power of the correcting lens
• As the vertex distance of a +lens increases
,the SM increases and vice-versa.
• As the vertex distance of a – lens increases,
the SM decreases and vice-versa
27. Factors affecting Retinal Image
• Change in prescription
• Change in vertex distance
• Change from spectacle to contact lens
• Change in thickness
• Change in bend or form of lens
28. SM in Astigmatism
• Differs in two principal meridians.
• The retinal image is larger in direction of the axis of
the –cyl that corrects the astigmatism.
• Difference between the two meridians= 1.5%per
dioptre of astigmatism.(spectacle)
• Difference between the two meridians=0.3%per
dioptre of astigmatism(contact lens)
29. Relative Spectacle Magnification RSM
• Ratio of the retinal image size of the corrected
ammetropic eye to that of the schematic emmetropic
eye or standard emmetropic eye.
• Depends on whether the ametropia is axial or refractive
• The image size is essentially the same as that for the
emmetropic eye in axial ametropia, but is magnified in
hyperopia and minified in myopia compared with that
for the emmetropic eye in refractive ametropia
30. • RSM= fe` /f`ST= FST/Fe
• FST= Equivalent power of the standard
emmetropic eye
• Fe = Equivalent power of the system
• Fe= FSP+ FA
• Where FSP = power correcting of spectacle
lens
• FA= refracting power of the ametropic eye
31. RSM in axial/refractive ametropia
• FA= FST
• RSM= FST / FSP + FST- dFSP*FST
• If spectacles are in the anterior focal point of the
eye, then RSM=1
• FA not equal to FST
• Axial length of the ametropic eye is equal to the
standard emmetropic eye.
• RSM= 1 /1- dFSP
• Significance is contact lens in ametropia
32. RSM in astigmatism
• If corrected by spectacle lens the retinal
image size is greatest in the axis meridian of
the correcting minus cyl and least in the
power meridian.
• If corrected by contact lens????
34. Relative Distance Magnification (RDM)
• RDM=initial object to present distance / the same object
to new distance
• If an object is moved from the reference distance of
40cm to 10cm RDM=40/10=4
• Bring the object closer => increases the angular
subtends of the object=> appears larger
• Trees near the road side appears larger than that of the
far-distance
• Use of plus lens for accommodation
35. Relative Size Magnification (RSM)
• Magnification obtained by increasing the size of
the object at its original position.
• E.g. large print books, magazines, large display
screen
• RSM= angular size of enlarged object /angular
size of initial object
E.g. if at 40cm an object is 0.5mm high but is increased
to 2.0 mm high
RSM= 2/0.5=4
36. Projection magnification
• The magnification produced from the
formation of an enlarged image on a screen ,
of an opaque or transparent object e.g.
overhead projector, CCTV
38. THE MICROSCOPE
1)SIMPLE MICROSCOPE and 2) COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
1)SIMPLE MICROSCOPE- A single convex lens of
short focal length can be used to see magnified image
of a small object and is called a magnifying glass or
simple microscope
• principle -when a small object is placed betn
optical
centre & focus of a convex lens, its virtual erect &
magnified image is formed on the same side of the lens
• The lens is so held that the image is formed
at the LDDV
39. • Magnifying power = angle subtended at eye by
image produced by lens/ angle subtended at unaided eye
by object at LDDV
• M= 1+D/fe,
D=LDDV, fe=eye piece lens
Uses-
• Jewelers & watch makers
• To see slides
40. • COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
– Objective piece - Short aperture and short focal
length
– Eye piece - short focal length and large aperture
– Principle -
• When a small object is placed just outside the
focus of the object lens its real , inverted and
magnified image is produced in the other side of
the lens between its f and 2f .
41. • The image produced by objective piece acts as
object for eye piece .
• The position of the eye lens is so adjusted that
the final image is formed at LDDV
• Me = 1+D/fe & Mo = v/ u
• M = Mo x Me = v/u (1+D/ fe)
• M= fo/fe= -Doc/D obj
At LDDV-
• M=fo/fe(1+fe/D)
42. TELESCOPE:
1. ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE :
– It produces virtual and inverted image
– Used to see heavenly bodies
•Principle -
– The objective forms the real and inverted image of the
distant object at its focal plane
– The position of eye piece is adjusted till the final image is
formed at LDDV.
– Normal adjustment - final image is formed at infinity
• M=fo / fe
– When final image is formed at LDDV -
• M= fo/fe(1+fe/D)
43. 2. TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE:
– Produces an erect image
– Erecting lens is placed in between objective and eye piece
– Normal adjustment -
• M=fo/fe
– At LDDV-
• M= fo/fe(1+fe/D)
44. 3. GALLILEO’S TELESCOPE :
– It provides an erect image of the distant object by use of two
lenses
– The objective piece ( convex lens )form the real and inverted
image of the distant object on the other side of lens at the focal
plane of objective.
– This image acts as a virtual object for the eye piece(concave
lens) . Final erect image formed at infinity
– The difference between two lens equals to fo-fe
• M= fo/fe
46. • Introduction :
• The ratio of size of image to the size of object
• M = image size / object size
= object vergence / image vergence
= image distance / object distance
• Human eye as the optical system the size of the image on
the retina is being compared with the size of the object of
regard
• Retinal image magnification (RIM) =
• Magnified retinal image size / original retinal size
47. – RIM has three components :
• Relative size magnification (RSM)
• Relative distance magnification (RDM)
• Lens vertex magnification (LVM)
– RSM and RDM can be achieved without the use of lens
where as LVM depends on the kind of lens placed before
the eye and its location
– It allows the use of magnifiers in such a way that image on
the retina are usable and functional although not in perfect
focus
48. • Clinical Significance :
• Direct ophthalmoscopy-
• Image is erect, virtual and
(about 15 times ) magnified in emmetrope ( more in
myopes less in hypermetropes).
• Indirect ophthalmoscopy -
• Image is real ,inverted
and magnified , which depends upon the dioptric
power of the convex lens , position of the lens in
relation to eye ball and refractive status of eye ball.
49. • Slit lamp Bio-microscope - Image is erect ,virtual and
magnification can be adjusted according to need as 10 X , 16 X
and 20 X.
•Low magnification:
– 7X - 10X : General eye
– Lids.
– Bulbar conjunctiva/sclera.
– Cornea/limbus.
– Tears.
– Anterior chamber/iris/crystalline lens.
•Medium magnification:
– 20X - 25X : Structure of individual
layers
– Epithelium/epithelial breakdown.
– Stroma.
– Endothelium.
– Contact lens fit/lens condition.
• High magnification:
– 30X - 40X : Details
• Epithelium
– vacuoles
– microcysts
– dystrophies.
• Stroma
– striae
– folds.
• Endothelium
– Polymegathism
– guttata
– blebs
– cell density.
50. In low vision aids –
• Spectacle Magnifier: RDM
• Hand magnifier :
• Useful in short term visual task
• Magnification depends upon equivalent power and how the
magnifier is used (RDM and Angular Magnification)
• Stand magnifier :
• The fixed focused eye having a fixed distance from object of
regard
• Magnification depends on the power of the magnifier (RDM
and Angular Magnification)
51. •Paper wet magnifier :
• Reading aid in which thick plano- convex lens is held
in contact with the reading material.
• Magnification is relatively low
•In Aniseometropia -
• Contact lens produces low magnification than spectacle
thus removes the aniseokonia .
•In Closed circuit television (CCTV) -
• Projection and relative distance magnification are
used .
•In Telescope -
• Angular magnification is used.