This document discusses linguistic concepts related to word and sentence meaning. It defines sense as the core meaning of a word or expression independent of context. Sense properties include analytic, synthetic, and contradictory sentences. Sense relations include synonymy, hyponymy, entailment, gradable antonyms, and ambiguity. Analytic sentences are necessarily true, synthetic sentences can be true or false, and contradictory sentences are necessarily false. Synonyms have the same sense, hyponyms have overlapping but not identical senses, and entailment describes logical implications between sentences. Ambiguity occurs when a word or sentence has multiple distinct senses or paraphrases.
Affixation, compounding, multi - word verbs Mark Bouwens
this presentation is about three of the most common word formation strategies. It covers an outlined discussion of the topic with examples and exercises for mastery. It includes affixation, compounding, phrasal verbs
Affixation, compounding, multi - word verbs Mark Bouwens
this presentation is about three of the most common word formation strategies. It covers an outlined discussion of the topic with examples and exercises for mastery. It includes affixation, compounding, phrasal verbs
ETL705 Week 6Semantics and the LexiconKey topics inBetseyCalderon89
ETL705 Week 6:
Semantics and the Lexicon
Key topics in Semantics
Sense and reference
Literal meaning
Figurative meaning
Lexical Semantics
Speech acts
Gricean maxims
Reference
presupposition
Sense and reference
Sense and reference, as we may simply say, are the two sides of a coin.
Reference (Denotation) is the person, the object, or anything that we are talking about and has a reference in the outside world.
Sense (Meaning) is related to the meaning, and the way the person or the object is referred to.
Activity
Identify the sense and reference of the word ‘unicorn’.
Literal vs. figurative meaning
The meaning that we draw ordinarily is called the literal meaning. The word ‘needle’ is literally defined as ‘a sharp instrument’. The non-literal meaning of ‘pain’ is not included in its dictionary definition. This is the connotative meaning that we get from ‘needle’. The denotation of the word refers (see reference in the previous slide) to the actual needle whereas the connotation, as one type of figurative meaning, is used for the sense (see sense in the previous slide).
Figurative meaning or figurative language is used for different purposes; e.g., for exaggeration, for analogy, and for metaphors, among other things. In literature it is often known as figure of speech.
Metaphors
The sentence ‘He is the apple of my eye’ – doesn’t refer to any kind of fruit; there is, of course, no real apple in a person's eye. The "apple" is someone beloved and held dear.
When we hear this statement, we interpret it metaphorically, that is, we go beyond the literal meaning.
Other examples:
a bubbly personality
feeling blue
a rollercoaster of emotions
it’s raining men
Since our daily use of language is full of metaphors, it is sometimes hard to draw a fine distinction between the literal and the metaphoric meaning. For this reason, some linguists prefer to consider them cognitively and not linguistically.
Activity
Think of 3 metaphors in English (or another language) and discuss
Metonymy
Metonymy is another kind of figure of speech which connotes habituality or association.
e.g.
‘The pen is mightier than the sword’
What about these?
The Crown
The White House
Dish
Ears
A hand
Australia
The semantics of homophony=homonymy
Homonyms:
When two words have the same spelling and pronunciation, but different meanings
I went to the bank (by the river or to withdraw some cash?).
This is an interesting case
Activity
Provide 2 homonyms.
(If the spelling is different but the sound is the same, e.g sea and see, they are homophones)
The semantics of polysemy
Polysemy (adj polysemous):
When a word has several meanings, such as the word ‘run’.
Compare:
He runs.
The paint runs.
The engine runs.
He has a runny nose.
The grass runs for a mile.
He runs this business.
The semantics of hyponymy
The word ‘gum’ or ‘gum tree’ is one kind of tree. The general word ‘tree’ is superordinate or hyponymous to the word ‘gum tree’.
Different t ...
Explain what linguists are trying to do when they deal with ‘semantics’;
Examine how the meanings of ‘lexical items’ (words) are linked together in lexical structures;
Explore the study of synonyms vs. opposites, hypernym vs. Hyponym, and classification, as well as fuzziness and family resemblances
Compositional and Lexical Semantics differ in its varied approach and principles associated with each idea. These will be discussed in this presentation along with ambiguity, anomaly, tautologies, contradictions, entailment, etc.
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2. CONTENTS
▪Sense and sense properties
▪Sense relations (1) Identity and similarity of
sense
▪Sense relations (2) Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
4. SENSE
The SENSE of an expression is its indispensable
hard core of meaning.
▪The sense is associated with words and sentences
by the language system, and NOT the speaker
meaning specifically associated with utterances
made by speakers on particular occasions.
▪This definition deliberately excludes any influence
of context or situation of utterance on the senses
of expressions.
▪The sense of an expression can be thought of as
the sum of its sense properties and sense
relations with other expressions.
▪Three important sense properties of sentences:
analytic, synthetic, and contradictory.
5. SENSE
An ANALYTIC sentence is one that is necessarily
TRUE, as a result of the senses of the words in it.
An analytic sentence, therefore, reflects a tacit
(unspoken) agreement by speakers of the language
about the senses of the words in it.
Example:
All elephants are animals.
6. SENSE PROPERTIES
A SYNTHETIC sentence is one which is NOT
analytic, but may be either true or false,
depending on the way the world is.
Example:
John is from Ireland.
7. SENSE PROPERTIES
Label the following sentences either T for true,
F for false, or D for don’t know, as appropriate.
(a) Cats are animals T / F / D
(b) Bachelors are unmarried T / F / D
(c) Cats never live more than 20 years T / F / D
(d) Bachelors cannot form lasting relationships T / F / D
(e) Cats are not vegetables T / F / D
(f) Bachelors are male T / F / D
(g) No cat likes to bathe T / F / D
(h) Bachelors are lonely T / F / D
8. SENSE PROPERTIES
Label the following sentences either T for true,
F for false, or D for don’t know, as appropriate.
(a) Cats are animals T / F / D
(b) Bachelors are unmarried T / F / D
(c) Cats never live more than 20 years T / F / D
(d) Bachelors cannot form lasting relationships T / F / D
(e) Cats are not vegetables T / F / D
(f) Bachelors are male T / F / D
(g) No cat likes to bathe T / F / D
(h) Bachelors are lonely T / F / D
9. SENSE PROPERTIES
Label the following sentences either T for true,
F for false, or D for don’t know, as appropriate.
(a) Cats are animals T / F / D
(b) Bachelors are unmarried T / F / D
(c) Cats never live more than 20 years T / F / D
(d) Bachelors cannot form lasting relationships T / F / D
(e) Cats are not vegetables T / F / D
(f) Bachelors are male T / F / D
(g) No cat likes to bathe T / F / D
(h) Bachelors are lonely T / F / D
analytic
analytic
analytic
analytic
synthetic
synthetic
synthetic
synthetic
11. SENSE PROPERTIES
X
X
X
X
X
X
• Analytic sentences are always true (necessarily so, by
virtue of the senses of the words in them)
• Synthetic sentences can be sometimes true, sometimes
false, depending on the circumstances.
12. SENSE PROPERTIES
A CONTRADICTION is a sentence that is
necessarily FALSE, as a result of the senses
of the words in it.
A contradiction is in a way the opposite of an
analytic sentence.
Example:
This animal is a vegetable.
15. SENSE PROPERTIES
Analyticity, syntheticity, and contradiction are
sense properties of sentences.
Example:
▪That man is human has the sense property of
analyticity (or of being analytic).
▪That man is tall has the sense property of
syntheticity (or of being synthetic).
▪That man is a woman has the sense property
of being a contradiction.
16. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
SYNONYMY is the relationship between to
predicates that have the same sense.
Example:
In most dialects of English, stubborn and obstinate
are synonyms.
In many dialects, brigand and bandit are synonyms.
In many dialects, mercury and quicksilver are
synonyms.
17.
18. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
▪Synonymy is a relation between predicates,
and not between words (i.e. word-forms).
▪A word may have many different senses;
=> Each distinct sense of a word is a predicate.
19. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
A sentence which expresses the same proposition
as another sentence is a PARAPHRASE of that
sentence (assuming the same referents for any
referring expressions involved).
▪PARAPHRASE is to SENTENCES (on individual
interpretations)
▪SYNONYMY is to PREDICATES
Example:
Bachelors prefer redhaired girls
is a paraphrase of
Girls with red hair are preferred by unmarried
men.
20. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
HYPONYMY is a sense relation between
predicates (or sometimes longer phrases)
such that the meaning of one predicate (or
phrase) is included in the meaning of the
other.
Example:
The meaning of red is included in the meaning of
scarlet.
Red is the superordinate (also called hypernym)
term; scarlet is a hyponym of red (scarlet is a kind
of red).
=> The superordinate term is more abstract,
general, or schematic than its hyponyms.
22. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
Given two synonyms, such as mercury and
quicksilver, we say for convenience that these
also illustrate the hyponymy relationship, and
that mercury and quicksilver are hyponyms of
each other.
Thus SYNONYMY can be seen as a special
case of HYPONYMY, i.e. SYMMETRICAL
HYPONYMY.
If X is a hyponym of Y and if Y is also a
hyponym of X, then X and Y are synonymous.
23. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
A proposition X ENTAILS a proposition Y if the
truth of Y follows necessarily from the truth of X.
A SENTENCE expressing proposition X entails a
sentence expressing proposition Y if the truth of Y
follows necessarily from the truth of X.
Example:
▪John ate all the kippers (X) entails Someone ate
something (Y).
▪John killed Bill (X) entails Bill died (Y).
26. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
Entailment applies cumulatively. Thus if X entails Y and
Y entails Z, then X entails Z.
Example:
▪ X, Some boys ran down the street
entails
▪ Y, Some kids ran down the street
▪ Y, Some kids ran down the street
entails
▪ Z, Some kids went down the street
Therefore,
▪ X, Some boys ran down the street
entails
▪ Z, Some kids went down the street.
27. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
Two sentences may be said to be
PARAPHRASES of each other if and only if
they have exactly the same set of
ENTAILMENTS; or, which comes to the same
thing, if and only if they mutually entail each
other so that whenever one is true the other
must also be true.
30. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
Relation
between pairs
of sentences
Relation
between pairs
of words
Not necessarily
symmetric
(i.e. can be
‘one-way’)
ENTAILMENT HYPONYMY
Symmetric (i.e.
‘both ways’)
PARAPHRASE SYNONYMY
31. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
Given two sentences A and B, identical in every
way except that A contains a word X where B
contains a different word Y, and X is a hyponym
of Y, then sentence A entails sentence B.
32. A B
• Tulip
• Sheep
• Steal
• Square
• Flower
• Animal
• Take
• Rectangular
• Henry was chewing a tulip
• Denis got savaged by a
sheep
• David stole a pound of
beef
• Mary climbed through a
square hole in the roof
• Henry was chewing a
flower
• Denis got savaged by an
animal
• David took a pound of
beef
• Mary climbed through a
rectangular hole in the roof
hole in the roof
If A is true, B must be true
33. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
Given two negative sentences A and B,
identical in every way except that A contains a
word X where B contains a different word Y,
and X is a hyponym of Y, then sentence B
entails sentence A.
34. A B
• Tulip
• Sheep
• Steal
• Square
• Flower
• Animal
• Take
• Rectangular
• Henry was NOT chewing a
tulip
• Denis didn’t get savaged by
a sheep
• David didn’t steal a pound
of beef
• Mary didn’t climb through a
square hole in the roof
• Henry was NOT chewing a
flower
• Denis didn’t get savaged by
an animal
• David didn’t take a pound
of beef
• Mary didn’t climb through a
rectangular hole in the roof
hole in the roof
If B is true, A must be true
35. A B
• Tulip
• Sheep
• Square
• Flower
• Animal
• Rectangular
• Henry chewed up all my
tulips
• All Denis’s sheep have
foot-root
• Mary coloured all the
square shapes purple
• Henry chewed up all my
flowers
• All Denis’ animals have
foot-root
• Mary coloured all the
rectangular shapes purple
B entails A only when the set of things referred to by the
phrase including all actually exists.
36. SENSE RELATIONS: Identity and
similarity of sense
The presence of gradable words upsets the
normal relationship between hyponymy and
entailment.
A B
• John saw a big mouse
• A tall pygmy came in
• We went in a small bus
• That was an expensive
sandwich
• John saw a big animal
• A tall person came in
• We went in a small vehicle
• That was an expensive
meal
37. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
BINARY ANTONYMS are predicates which
come in pairs and between them exhaust all
the relevant possibilities.
▪If the one predicate is applicable, then the
other cannot be, and vice versa.
▪A predicate is a binary antonym of another
predicate if it entails the negative of the other
predicate.
▪Example:
true and false are binary antonyms.
40. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
If a predicate describes a relationship between
two things (or people) and some other
predicate describes the same relationship
when the two things (or people) are mentioned
in the opposite order, then the two predicates
are CONVERSES of each other.
▪Example:
Parent and child are converses, because X is
the parent of Y (one order) describes the same
situation (relationship) as Y is the child of X
(opposite order).
46. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
Systems of MULTIPLE INCOMPATIBILITY:
▪All the terms are mutually incompatible
▪Together, the members of a system cover all
the relevant area
▪Many are open-ended
Example: Systems of
-English colour words
-English names of plants
-English names of metals
47. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
Two predicates are GRADABLE ANTONYMS if they
are at opposite ends of a continuous scale of
values (a scale which typically varies according to
the context of use).
▪Example:
Hot and cold are gradable antonyms.
▪Between hot and cold is a continuous scale of
values, which may be given names such as
warm, cool, or tepid. What is called hot in one
context (e.g. of oven temperatures in a recipe
book) could well be classed as cold in another
context (e.g. the temperatures of stars).
49. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
A good test for gradability, i.e. having a value on some
continuous scale, as gradable antonyms do, is to see
whether a word can combine with very, or very much, or
how? or how much?
53. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
▪A proposition is a CONTRADICTORY of another
proposition if it is impossible for them both to be
true at the same time and of the same
circumstances.
▪A sentence expressing one proposition is a
CONTRADICTORY of a sentence expressing
another proposition if it is impossible for both
propositions to be true at the same time and of
the same circumstances.
▪A sentence CONTRADICTS another sentence if it
entails the negation of the other sentence.
▪Example:
This beetle is alive is a contradictory of This beetle
is dead.
56. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
▪A word or sentence is AMBIGUOUS when it
has more than one sense.
▪A sentence is AMBIGUOUS if it has two (or
more) paraphrases which are not themselves
paraphrases of each other.
▪Example:
We saw her duck
We saw her lower her head
We saw the duck belonging to her
57. The chicken is ready to be eaten
The chicken is ready to eat some food
It can be boring to visit relatives
Relatives who are visiting can be boring
They passed the seaport at midnight
They passed the port wine at midnight
It was crouching under the table that bothered Bill
The creature that bothered Bill was crouching under the table
The captain corrected the inventory
The captain corrected the tilt
58. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
In the case of words and phrases, a word or
phrase is AMBIGUOUS if it has two (or more)
SYNONYMS that are not themselves synonyms
of each other.
▪Example:
Trunk is synonymous with elephant’s
proboscis and with chest, but these two are
not synonyms of each other, so trunk is
ambiguous.
59. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
A case of HOMONYMY is one of an ambiguous word whose
different senses are far apart from each other and not obviously
related to each other in any way with respect to a native
speaker’s intuition.
▪ Cases of homonymy seem very definitely to be matters of mere
accident or coincidence.
▪ Example:
Mug (drinking vessel vs gullible person)
Bank (financial institution vs the side of a river or stream)
▪ There is no obvious conceptual connection between the two
meanings of either word.
60. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
A case of POLYSEMY is one where a word has
several very closely related senses.
▪A native speaker of the language has clear
intuitions that the different senses are
related to each other in some way.
▪Example:
Mouth (of a river vs of an animal)
64. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
A sentence which is ambiguous because its
words relate to each other in different ways,
even though none of the individual words are
ambiguous, is STRUCTURALLY (or
GRAMMATICALLY) AMBIGUOUS.
Example:
The chicken is ready to eat.
65. SENSE RELATIONS: Oppositeness and
dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity
Any ambiguity resulting from the ambiguity of
a word is a LEXICAL AMBIGUITY.
Example:
The captain corrected the list.