Here are the phrase structure analyses for the two interpretations of the ambiguous phrase "more exciting ideas": (a) [AP [A' more [AP exciting [NP ideas]]]] - Modification interpretation, with "more" modifying the adjective phrase "exciting ideas" (b) [[AP more exciting] [NP ideas]] - Head-complement interpretation, with "more exciting" as a complement of the head "ideas"

1. INSTRUCTOR: LE NGUYEN NHU ANH
LINGUISTICS 2
M1 LESSON 1.2
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2. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Contents:
– Subject and predicate
– Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase
– Dependency and function
• Head
• The modifier ~ head relation
• The head ~ complement relation

3. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
A systematic sentence analysis is best begun, by
first identifying the very largest phrases – those
phrases which are immediate constituents of the
sentence itself.

4. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Functions of the immediate constituents of the
sentence: Subject and Predicate
Subject: used to mention something
Predicate: used to say something about the
subject
SUBJECT PREDICATE
The ducks are paddling away.
Those gigantic ducks were paddling away
furiously.
The mouth-watering duck on
the table
won’t be paddling away
again.

5. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Subject and predicate
– Identify the Subject by asking Yes/No question:
the Subject changes position in Yes/No question
– The subject doesn’t always begin the sentence.

6. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase
– The subject of a sentence is the NP immediately
dominated by S.
– The predicate of a sentence is the VP
immediately dominated by S.

7. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– B and C are SISTERS, they are the DAUGHTERS
of A, the node that immediately dominates them.
And A is the MOTHER of B and C.
– Constituents always have their functions in
respect of their sister constituents.
– Three general concepts: HEAD, MODIFIER,
COMPLEMENT

8. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The HEAD of a phrase is the element that the
phrase is centred on. It is the one essential –
obligatory – element in that phrase. It
determines the category of the phrase.
– Example: the head of a NP is a Noun, Verb
Phrase – Verb, Adjective Phrase – Adjective, etc.

9. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Modifier ~ Head relation:
There are three sister relationships
in [36]: (1) between two and
PHRASE-b (rather dubious jokes),
(2) between PHRASE-c (rather
dubious) and jokes, and (3) between
rather and dubious. The relation that
holds between these sister
constituents is of the same general
kind, namely MODIFICATION.

10. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Modifier ~ Head relation:
• Relation between rather and dubious:
ONE-WAY FUNCTION/DEPENDENCY.
• rather depends on dubious but not
vice-versa. This function is called
MODIFICATION. The function of rather
is to modify dubious
• Function of dubious: head of the
Adjective Phrase “rather dubious”
• In the structure of a phrase,
modifiers are OPTIONAL; the head is
the OBLIGATORY element.

11. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Modifier ~ Head relation:
• Relation between (rather dubious)
and jokes: MODIFIER-HEAD, rather
dubious specifies the character of
jokes.
• rather dubious is a DEPENDENT
MODIFIER of jokes but not vice-
versa.
• Function of jokes: head of the Noun
Phrase “rather dubious jokes”
• rather dubious is OPTIONAL; jokes is
the OBLIGATORY element.

12. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Modifier ~ Head relation:
• Two is the (optional, dependent)
modifier of the head rather dubious
jokes

13. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Modifier ~ Head relation:
Phrases – as well as words – can
function as heads and as modifiers.
In a given phrase, there can only
be one head.

14. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Modifier ~ Head relation:

15. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Head ~ Complement relation:
Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream
A TWO-WAY (MUTUAL) DEPENDENCY; both
elements are obligatory in the structure of
the phrase.
Although beside and a stream are both
needed to express the spatial orientation in
this case, it’s clearly the word beside that’s
giving the phrase as a whole its locational
character. So beside is the head of the
Prepositional phrase.

16. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Head ~ Complement relation:
• When a HEAD demands a further expression, that
further (OBLIGATORY) expression is said to
COMPLEMENT the head.
• Complements typically follow their heads in English.

17. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Dependency and function
– The Head ~ Complement relation:
Phil dreads affectionate cats
For the relation between
dreads and [affectionate
cats]: Neither can be
omitted. => The relation
between dreads and
[affectionate cats] is a (two-
way) HEAD~COMPLEMENT
DEPENDENCY.

18. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Summary
Constituents have their functions in respect of
their SISTERS. Three kinds of functional relation
between sisters:
– Subject~Predicate. The functional relation between
the immediate constituents of sentences, Noun
Phrase (NP) and Verb Phrase (VP).
• It is a mutual (two-way) dependency – S and P are both
obligatory.
• S precedes P.
– Modifier~Head. This is a one-way dependency:
modifiers depend on heads.
• Modifiers are optional (omissible).
• Some modifiers precede and some follow the heads they
modify.

19. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
• Summary
– Head~Complement. A two-way dependency.
• Complements are obligatory, needed to complete the
meaning of the phrase.
• The head generally precedes its complement.
– Heads. The head is the obligatory centre of its
phrase.
• Every phrase has a head and no more than one head.
• The category of the head determines the category of
the phrase.

20. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
Exercises
1. Identify the subjects and predicates of the following
sentences.
(a) No one has ordered my lovely prune-and-spinach fritters.
(b) Her memory for names was a constant source of
amazement to him.
(c) There are too many uninvited guests here.
(d) Only two of the sky-diving team brought their parachutes.
(e) It was Lydia who finally trapped the pig.
(f) The fact that you received no birthday greetings from Mars
doesn’t mean it is uninhabited.
(g) That evening, Laura learned the Health and Safety
Regulations by heart.

21. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
Exercises
1. Identify the subjects and predicates of the following
sentences.
(a) No one has ordered my lovely prune-and-spinach fritters.
(b) Her memory for names was a constant source of
amazement to him.
(c) There are too many uninvited guests here.
(d) Only two of the sky-diving team brought their parachutes.
(e) It was Lydia who finally trapped the pig.
(f) The fact that you received no birthday greetings from Mars
doesn’t mean it is uninhabited.
(g) That evening, Laura learned the Health and Safety
Regulations by heart.

22. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
Exercises
2. Identify the category of the following phrases (as Noun
Phrase, Verb Phrase, or ‘other’).
(a) installed for only £199.95
(b) were being given away
(c) too far to drive in a day
(d) obsolescent washing machines
(e) ten long holidays at the Hotel Mortification
(f) which I had bought only the day before
(g) have made me realise that ‘cheap’ does indeed mean
‘nasty’.

23. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
Exercises
2. Identify the category of the following phrases (as Noun
Phrase, Verb Phrase, or ‘other’).
(a) installed for only £199.95
(b) were being given away
(c) too far to drive in a day
(d) obsolescent washing machines
(e) ten long holidays at the Hotel Mortification
(f) which I had bought only the day before
(g) have made me realise that ‘cheap’ does indeed mean
‘nasty’.

24. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
Exercises
3. The phrase more exciting ideas is ambiguous and
needs a different structural analysis for each of its two
interpretations. Draw the phrase markers, giving a brief
indication of which interpretation goes with which
analysis.

25. 1.2 Sentence structure: Functions
Exercises
3. (a) “more ideas that are exciting”
(b) “ideas that are more exciting”