This document discusses various lexical relations in language including synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, prototypes, homophones, homonyms, metonymy, retronyms, entailment, and semantic features. It provides examples for each lexical relation and discusses how they relate words and concepts. It also discusses how dictionaries describe words and the role of prototypes. The document aims to describe the different relationships between words that exist in language.
conversational implicature is a sort of inference that has been derived from speaker's said utterance, to say going deep to abstract what is meant by speaker rather what is being said.
it is like drawing inference with the help of non verbal cues, schemata of the situation as well.An utterance which conveys meaning beyond its proposition.what is said must be understood in terms of what philosophers define as meaning, that is, sense and reference, what is said is the result of a linguistic computation implying the description of a full proposition with a truth value.
Reference and Denotation
Connotation
Sense Relations
Lexical and Grammatical Meanings
Reference
Reference is the relation between a language expression such as this door, both doors, the dog, another dog and whatever the expression pertains to in a particular situation of language use, including what a speaker many imagine.
Reference is the way speakers and hearers use an expression successfully.
Example :
My son is in the beech tree.
Referent:person Referent:things
Note :
Referent of a part of language : things or people exist in the world even something or someone that not exist but we believe they are available.
Kind of Reference
The English Expression (Part of Language)
Thing/Person (Part of world)
Triangle of meaning by Ogden and Richards
Denotation
Denotation is the straight forward or common – sense meaning of a sign. Literally what is actually shown in an image .
Example :
A red rose is a flower – that is its straight forward meaning or denotation.
An apple is a fruit we eat.
Connotation
Connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word.
Kinds of connotation :
Flavor or positive connotation : words that make people feel good.
Unfavorable or negative connotation : words that provoke a negative emotional response.
Neutral connotation : not good or bad ; indifferent ; used when the author doesn’t want to show strong emotions either way.
Sense Relations
Sense Relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates
Kinds of Sense Relations
SYNONYM
Synonym is a word that means exactly the same as or very nearly the same as, another world in the same language
ANTONYM
Antonym is a word which has opposite meaning.
POLYSEMY
Polysemi is a word that has many meaning, but it includes a central groove
HYPONYM
Hyponym is a word whose meaning is summarized in a broader sense
LEXICAL & GRAMMATICAL MEANING
Lexical (derivational morphology) studies word formation which produces new words. It changes part of speech and meaning.
Grammatical (inflection morphology) studies word formation related to grammar. It does not change part of speech and meaning, but give signal grammatical information
conversational implicature is a sort of inference that has been derived from speaker's said utterance, to say going deep to abstract what is meant by speaker rather what is being said.
it is like drawing inference with the help of non verbal cues, schemata of the situation as well.An utterance which conveys meaning beyond its proposition.what is said must be understood in terms of what philosophers define as meaning, that is, sense and reference, what is said is the result of a linguistic computation implying the description of a full proposition with a truth value.
Reference and Denotation
Connotation
Sense Relations
Lexical and Grammatical Meanings
Reference
Reference is the relation between a language expression such as this door, both doors, the dog, another dog and whatever the expression pertains to in a particular situation of language use, including what a speaker many imagine.
Reference is the way speakers and hearers use an expression successfully.
Example :
My son is in the beech tree.
Referent:person Referent:things
Note :
Referent of a part of language : things or people exist in the world even something or someone that not exist but we believe they are available.
Kind of Reference
The English Expression (Part of Language)
Thing/Person (Part of world)
Triangle of meaning by Ogden and Richards
Denotation
Denotation is the straight forward or common – sense meaning of a sign. Literally what is actually shown in an image .
Example :
A red rose is a flower – that is its straight forward meaning or denotation.
An apple is a fruit we eat.
Connotation
Connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word.
Kinds of connotation :
Flavor or positive connotation : words that make people feel good.
Unfavorable or negative connotation : words that provoke a negative emotional response.
Neutral connotation : not good or bad ; indifferent ; used when the author doesn’t want to show strong emotions either way.
Sense Relations
Sense Relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates
Kinds of Sense Relations
SYNONYM
Synonym is a word that means exactly the same as or very nearly the same as, another world in the same language
ANTONYM
Antonym is a word which has opposite meaning.
POLYSEMY
Polysemi is a word that has many meaning, but it includes a central groove
HYPONYM
Hyponym is a word whose meaning is summarized in a broader sense
LEXICAL & GRAMMATICAL MEANING
Lexical (derivational morphology) studies word formation which produces new words. It changes part of speech and meaning.
Grammatical (inflection morphology) studies word formation related to grammar. It does not change part of speech and meaning, but give signal grammatical information
ETL705 Week 6Semantics and the LexiconKey topics inBetseyCalderon89
ETL705 Week 6:
Semantics and the Lexicon
Key topics in Semantics
Sense and reference
Literal meaning
Figurative meaning
Lexical Semantics
Speech acts
Gricean maxims
Reference
presupposition
Sense and reference
Sense and reference, as we may simply say, are the two sides of a coin.
Reference (Denotation) is the person, the object, or anything that we are talking about and has a reference in the outside world.
Sense (Meaning) is related to the meaning, and the way the person or the object is referred to.
Activity
Identify the sense and reference of the word ‘unicorn’.
Literal vs. figurative meaning
The meaning that we draw ordinarily is called the literal meaning. The word ‘needle’ is literally defined as ‘a sharp instrument’. The non-literal meaning of ‘pain’ is not included in its dictionary definition. This is the connotative meaning that we get from ‘needle’. The denotation of the word refers (see reference in the previous slide) to the actual needle whereas the connotation, as one type of figurative meaning, is used for the sense (see sense in the previous slide).
Figurative meaning or figurative language is used for different purposes; e.g., for exaggeration, for analogy, and for metaphors, among other things. In literature it is often known as figure of speech.
Metaphors
The sentence ‘He is the apple of my eye’ – doesn’t refer to any kind of fruit; there is, of course, no real apple in a person's eye. The "apple" is someone beloved and held dear.
When we hear this statement, we interpret it metaphorically, that is, we go beyond the literal meaning.
Other examples:
a bubbly personality
feeling blue
a rollercoaster of emotions
it’s raining men
Since our daily use of language is full of metaphors, it is sometimes hard to draw a fine distinction between the literal and the metaphoric meaning. For this reason, some linguists prefer to consider them cognitively and not linguistically.
Activity
Think of 3 metaphors in English (or another language) and discuss
Metonymy
Metonymy is another kind of figure of speech which connotes habituality or association.
e.g.
‘The pen is mightier than the sword’
What about these?
The Crown
The White House
Dish
Ears
A hand
Australia
The semantics of homophony=homonymy
Homonyms:
When two words have the same spelling and pronunciation, but different meanings
I went to the bank (by the river or to withdraw some cash?).
This is an interesting case
Activity
Provide 2 homonyms.
(If the spelling is different but the sound is the same, e.g sea and see, they are homophones)
The semantics of polysemy
Polysemy (adj polysemous):
When a word has several meanings, such as the word ‘run’.
Compare:
He runs.
The paint runs.
The engine runs.
He has a runny nose.
The grass runs for a mile.
He runs this business.
The semantics of hyponymy
The word ‘gum’ or ‘gum tree’ is one kind of tree. The general word ‘tree’ is superordinate or hyponymous to the word ‘gum tree’.
Different t ...
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
9. 1. Gradable antonyms
Those which can be used in comparative constructions.
e.g. big/small
Also the negative of one member of a gradable pair
does not necessarily imply the other.
e.g. My car isn't old doesn’t necessarily mean My car is
new.
When one gradable antonym is marked ,the other is
unmarked.
The unmarked member is the one used in the question of
degree.
e.g. How high is the mountain?(not “How low is it?)
10. 2. Non-gradable antonyms ( complementary pairs)
Comparative constructions are not normally used. We don’t
say deader or more dead.
The negative of one member of a non-gradable pair does
imply the other one.
e.g. My grandparents aren’t alive does indeed
mean my grandparents are dead.
single/marred, true/false, male/female
11. 3. Reversives (antiautonym)
one member of this antonymous pair does
not necessarily describe the negative of the
other.
e.g. In undress/ dress ,undress doesn’t mean
not dress.
enter/exit, pack/unpack, lengthen/shorten
12. 4. Rational opposites
Kinds of antonym which display symmetry
in their meaning.
e.g. give/ receive, buy/sell, teacher /pupil
13. 5. Autoantonyms
Some words which are their own antonyms.
split apart
e.g. cleave
cling together
Note: Antonym pairs are pronounced the same
but spelled differently are similar to autoantonyms.
e.g. raise/raze
14. C. Hyponymy
When the meaning of one form is included in the
meaning of another word, the relationship is
described as hyponymy.
e.g. animal/dog
The specific term ,dog, is called hyponym, and the
general term ,animal, is called a superordinate.
Co-hyponyms : are two or more words that share
the same superordinate term.
e.g. dog, horse, cat
15. D. Prototype
The characteristic instance of a category is known
as the prototype.
e.g. The most characteristic instance of the
category ‘bird’ is the ‘robin’.
The concept of the prototype helps explain the
meaning of certain words, like bird, not in terms of
clearest features( e.g. ‘has feathers, wings ), but in
terms of resemblance to the clearest example.
16. E. Homophones and homonyms
• Homophones
Two or more words that have
the same pronunciation, but
different meanings.
e.g. flower/ flour, right/
write
18. C. Homonyms
When one form (written or spoken) has two or
more unrelated meanings.
e.g. bank (of a river)- bank (financial
institution).
Note: All homonyms have lexical ambiguity.
19. G. Metonymy
A type of relationship between words, based simply
on a close connection in every experience.
That close connection can be based on a
container-content relation( bottle/water,
can/juice)
A whole/part relation (car/wheels, house/roof)
Representative-symbol relation (king/crown, the
President/ the White house).
e.g. He drank the whole bottle.
filling up the car, boiling the kettle.
20. H. Retronyms
It is a term doesn't apply to the
individual words themselves, but
the combination.
e.g. whole milk, silent movie
21. Challenge your mind
What has fork and mouth, but can’t eat?
River
Fork: a place where a road, river, or tree divides into
two parts, or one of the parts it divides into.
Mouth : the part of a river where it joins the sea.
23. Semantic aspects in lexicon and
lexical entries
Entailment
Sometimes knowing the truth of one sentence
entails, or necessarily implies, the truth of
another sentence.
a. Max managed to finish the Infinite Jest.
b. Max finished the Infinite Jest.
A sentence( S1) entails a sentence(S2) if
whenever S1 is true, S2 is also true.
24. ?
a.The dado is extinct.
b.Berlin is the capital of
Germany.
25. Semantic Opposites
a. Max failed to finish Infinite Jest.
b. Max didn't finish Infinite Jest.
Contradiction
It is a negative entailment, that is the truth of
one sentence necessarily implies the falseness
of another sentence.
e.g. a. Scott is a baby.
b. Scott is an adult.
26. Hyponym (meaning inclusion)
a. The thing in the cage is a lion.
b. The thing in the cage is an animal.
a. The thing in the grass is a snake.
b. The thing in the grass is a reptile.
a. The thing in the tree is a sparrow.
b. The thing in the tree is a bird.
‘X is a lion ‘ entails ‘x is an animal'
28. Taxonomy
A structure in which we meet more general terms as
we ascend to higher levels.
creature
animal bird fish reptile
Lion dog cow sparrow eagle ostrich trout eel shark snake lizard newt
33. Synonymy (identity of meaning)
Cognitive synonymy
Lexemes L1 and L2 are cognitive synonyms if and
only if S(L1) entails S(L2) and S(L2) entails S(L1).
S(L1) S(L2)
a. ‘Sir Lanceiot rode a white horse’ entails ‘Sir
Lanceiot rode a white steed’
b. ‘Sir Lanceiot rode a white steed’ entails ‘Sir
Lanceiot rode a white horse’
34. a. The old lame horse gamely pulled the plough.
b. The old lame steed gamely pulled the plough.
37. Antonyms
Two words with opposite meanings.
a. ‘x is tall’ entails ‘X is not short’
b. ‘X is short’ entails ‘X is not tall’
38. Complementary(non-gradable
antonyms)
a. ‘The store is open’ entails’ the store is not
closed’
b. ‘the store is closed’ entails ‘the store is not
open’
a. ‘the store is not closed’ entails ‘the store is
open’
b. ‘the store is not open’ entails ‘the store is
closed’
45. Octagon- a plane figure of eight sides and eight
angles.
a. ‘X is an octagon’ entails ‘ X is a plane figure’
b. ‘X is an octagon’ entails ‘ X has eight sides ‘
c. ‘X is an octagon’ entails ‘ X has eight angles’
‘ X is a plane figure’ and‘ X has eight sides ‘ and ‘ X
has eight angles’ entails ‘X is an octagon’
46. Spaniel- a kind of dog, usually liver- and –white
or black-and –white, with long pendent ears.
• ‘X is a spaniel’ entails ‘x is a liver- and –white
or black-and –white’
• Spaniel-a kind of dog, with long pendent ears.
47. Spaniel – a kind of dog
‘X is a kind of dog’ entails ‘X is a
spaniel’
48. a. Strictly speaking, an ostrich is a bird.
b. ? Strictly speaking, a robin is a bird.
c. Technically, a whale is a mammal.
d. ? Strictly speaking, a trout is a fish.
49. The job of the linguist, like that of the biologist or
the botanist, is not to tell us how nature should
behave, or what its creations should look like, but
to describe those creations in all their messy glory
and try to figure out what they can teach us about
life, the world, and, especially in the case of
linguistics, the workings of the human mind.”
Arika Okrent