This document discusses key concepts in semantics, including: - Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Speaker meaning refers to what a speaker intends to convey, while sentence meaning refers to the literal meaning of words and sentences. - Utterances are stretches of speech, sentences are abstract strings of words, and propositions describe states of affairs. Referring expressions refer to people or things, and sense refers to a word's meaning in a language system. - Predicates are words that can function as the main verb in a sentence, and have an extension (set of things they can describe) and degree (number of arguments). Analytic sentences are necessarily true based on word meanings, while synthetic

1. SEMANTIC
S
Written by :
LAILATIS SYARIFAH
11311137
STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES (STAIN)
SALATIGA

2. BASIC IDEAS IN SEMANTICS
SEMANTICS is the study of MEANING in
LANGUAGE.
Hopelessly I hope to convince you that by
careful thought about language you speak and
the way it is used, definite conclusions CAN be
arrived at concerning meaning.

3. SPEAKER MEANING is what a speaker means
(i.e. intends to convey) when he uses a piece
of language.
SENTENCE MEANING (or WORD MEANING)
is what a sentence or word means, i.e. what it
counts as the equivalent of in the language
concerned.

4. A THEORY is a precisely specified coherent and
economical framework of interdependent
statements and definitions, constructed so
that as large a number as possible of particular
basic facts can either be seen to follow from it
or be describable in terms of it.

5. SENTENCE, UTTERANCES AND
PROPOSITIONS
An UTTERANCE is any stretch of talk, by one
person, before and after which there is silence
on the part of that person.
An utterance is the use by a particular speaker,
on a particular occasion, of a piece of
language, such as a sequence of sentences,
or a single word.

6. A SENTENCE is neither a physical event nor a
physical object. It is conceived abstractly, a
string of words put together by the
grammatical rules of a language. A sentence
can be thought of as the IDEAL string of words
behind various realizations in utterances and
inscriptions.

7. A SENTENCE is a grammatically complete
string of words expressing a complete thought.
Example :
I would like a glass of strawberry juice.

8. A PROPOSITION is that part of the meaning of
the utterance of a declarative sentence which
describes some state of affairs.
True proposition correspond to facts, in the
ordinary sense of the word fact. False
propositions do not correspond to facts.

9. REFERENCE AND SENSE
By means of reference, a speaker indicates
which things in the world (including persons)
are being talked about.
Example :
“My husband is in the office”

10. A SENCE of an expression is its place in a
system of semantics relationships with other
expressions in the language.
Example :
I {almost/ nearly} fell over

11. REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
A REFERRING EXPRESSIONS is any
expression used in an utterance to refer to
something or someone (or a clearly delimited
collection of things or people), i.e. used with a
particular referent in mind.
Example :
The name Nidho in an utterance such as “Nidho
call me” where the speaker has a particular
person in mind when he says “Nidho”, is a
referring expression

12. An OPAQUE CONTEXT is a part of a sentence
which could be made into a complete
sentence by the addition of a referring
expression, but where the addition of different
referring expressions, even though they refer
to the same thing or person, in a given
situation, will yield sentence with DIFFERENT
meanings when uttered in a given situation.

13. Example :
“Ello believes that Nidho killed Ant”
“Ello believes that the person in the corner killed
Ant”
Assume that Ello does not know that Nidho is
the person in the corner.

14. An EQUATIVE SENTENCE is one which is used
to assert the identity of the referents of two
referring expressions, i.e. to assert that two
referring expressions have the same referent.
Example :
Ello is the Leader of the Organization committee
In her boarding school
That women over there is my wife

15. PREDICATES
The PREDICATOR of a simple declarative
sentence is the word (sometimes a group of
word) which does not belong to any of the
referring expressions and which of the
remainder, makes the most specific
contribution to the meaning of the sentence.
Example :
Beautiful is the predicator in Ello is Beautiful

16. A PREDICATE is any word or sequence of
words which in a given single sense can
function as the predicator of a sentence.
Example :
Take, in, go, eat, hit, show, house, except
conjunction and article (and, or, but, not).

17. The DEGREE of a predicates is a number indicating
the number of arguments it is normally understood
to have in simple sentences.
Example :
I’m Hungry (I: argument , hungry: predicator)
Argument only one (I) so it called a one place
predicate.
Ello take the Gift (Ello: argument, Take: predicator,
Gift: Argument)
There are two argument, so it called two place
predicate.

18. PREDICATES, REFERRING
EXPRESSIONS, AND UNIVERSE OF
DISCOURSE
A GENERIC SENTENCE is a sentence in which
some statement is made about a whole
unrestricted class of individuals, as opposed to
any particular individual.
Example :
The Whale is Mammal (understood by every
people in the universe)

19. The UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE for any
utterances as the particular world real or
imaginary (or part real, part imaginary) that the
speaker assumes he is talking about at the
time.
Example :
Every conversation event it REAL or
FICTIVIOUS world.

20. DEIXIS AND DEFINITENESS
A DEICTIC word is one study takes some
element of its meaning from the situation (i.e.
the speaker , the addressee the time and the
place) of the utterance in which it is used.
Example :
This book is written by that author.

21. The CONTEXT of an utterances is a small
subpart of the universe of discourse shared by
speaker and hearer, and includes facts about
the topic of the conversation in which the
utterances occurs, and also facts about the
situation in which the conversation itself takes
place.

22. DEFINITENESS is a feature of a noun phrase
selected by a speaker to convey his
assumption that the hearer will be able to
identify the referent of the noun phrase,
usually because it is the only thing of its kind in
the context of the utterance or because it is
unique in the universe of discourse.
Example :
The Earth is definite. It is the only thing in a
normal universe of discourse known by this
name.

23. EXTENSION of a one place predicate is the set
of all individuals to which that predicate can
truthfully be applied. It is the set of things
which can potentially be referred to by using
an expression whose main element is that
predicate.
Example :
The extension of windows is the set of all
windows in the universe
The extension of cat is the set of all cats in the
universe

24. A PROTOTYPE of a predicate is an object which
is held to be very typical of the kind of object
which can be referred to by an expression
containing the predicate.
Example :
A man of medium height and average build,
between 30 and 50 years old, with brownish
hair, with no particularly distinctive
characteristics of defects could be a prototype
of the predicate MAN in certain areas of the
world.

25. An ANALYTIC sentence is one that is necessarily
TRUE, as a result of the sense of the words in it.
An SYNTHETIC sentence is one which is NOT
analytic, but may be either true or false,
depending on the way the world is.
Example :
Analytic : all whale are mammal. (the true of the
sentence follow from the senses of whale and
mammal
Synthetic : Nidhom is handsome. (there is nothing in
the sense of Nidhom or Handsome which makes
this necessarily true or false.

26. A CONTRADICTION is a sentence that is
necessarily FALSE, as a an result of the sense
of the words in it. Thus a contradiction is in a
way the opposite of analytic sentence.
Example :
Lailatis is a man. (this mush be false, because
lailatis is a woman, not a man)

27. A NECESSARY CONDITION on the sense of a
predicate is a condition which a thing MUST
meet in order to qualify as being correctly
described by that predicate.
A SUFFICIENT SET OF CONDITIONS on the
sense of a predicate is a set of condition
which, if they are met by a thing, are enough in
themselves to GUARANTEE that the predicate
correctly describes that thing

28. The STEREOTYPE of a predicate is a list of the
typical characteristics of things to which the
predicate may be applied.
Example :
The stereotype of cat would be something like :
Quadruped, domesticated, either black, or white,
or grey, or tortoise shell, or marmalade in
colour, or some combination of these colours,
adult speciments about 50 cm long from nose
to tip of tail, furry, with sharp retractable claws,
etc.

29. SYNONYMY is the relationship between two
predicates that have the same sense
Example :
The thief tried to CONCEAL/HIDE the evidence

30. HYPONYMY is a sense relation between
predicates (or some longer phrase) such that
the meaning of one predicate (or phrase) is
included in the meaning of the other
Example :
The meaning of RED is included in the meaning
of Scarlet. Red is the super ordinate term;
scarlet is a hyponym of red

31. A proposition X ENTAILS a proposition Y if the
truth of Y follows necessarily from the truth of
X.
Example :
Nidho loved Ello (X) entails Ello Happy (Y)
Nidho killed Bird (X) entails Bird Died (Y)

32. Two sentences may be said to be
PARAPHRASE of each other if and only if
they have exactly the same set of
ENTAILMENTS; or, which comes to the same
thing, if and only if they mutually entail each
other so that whenever one is true the other
must also be true.
Example :
Nidho and Ello are Couples entails Ello and
Nidho are Couples.

33. Thank you