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these presentations covers the second unit of NCS- 505 Computer Architecture, taught in CSE third year of AKTU affiliated colleges.
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isa architecture
The document discusses instruction set architecture (ISA), describing it as the interface between software and hardware that defines the programming model and machine language instructions. It provides details on RISC ISAs like MIPS and how they aim to have simpler instructions, more registers, load/store architectures, and pipelining to improve performance compared to CISC ISAs. The document also discusses different types of ISA designs including stack-based, accumulator-based, and register-to-register architectures.
Instruction Set Architecture
The document discusses instruction set architecture (ISA), which is part of computer architecture related to programming. It defines the native data types, instructions, registers, addressing modes, and other low-level aspects of a computer's operation. Well-known ISAs include x86, ARM, MIPS, and RISC. A good ISA lasts through many implementations, supports a variety of uses, and provides convenient functions while permitting efficient implementation. Assembly language is used to program at the level of an ISA's registers, instructions, and execution order.
Instruction cycle
Instruction cycle in computer architecture. In this slides you can learn how processor process an instruction.
isa architecture
FLPU = Floating Points operations Unit
PFCU = Prefetch control unit
AOU = Atomic Operations Unit
Memory-Management unit (MMU)
MAR (memory address register)
MDR (memory data register)
BIU (Bus Interface Unit)
ARS (Application Register Set)
FRS File Register Set
(SRS) single register set
instruction codes
- Computer instruction codes are the basic components of machine language programs and are encoded in binary.
- Each instruction code contains an operation code that designates the operation (e.g. add, subtract) and may contain operands that indicate where data is located in registers or memory.
- The CPU uses the operation code and operands to perform a sequence of micro-operations and control hardware to carry out the instruction.
Chapter 9
The document discusses the key requirements placed on a processor during instruction execution. A processor must fetch instructions from memory, interpret the instruction to determine the required action, and may need to fetch data from memory or I/O modules to execute the instruction. Understanding these fundamental requirements is important for analyzing the organization of a processor.
Chapter 1
This document provides an introduction to a course on computer organization and assembly language. It will cover the main hardware components of a computer system, including memory, the CPU, and I/O ports. It will also discuss how instructions are executed in the fetch-execute cycle. Students will learn assembly language and how it maps to the underlying machine language understood by the CPU. They will be assessed through quizzes, assignments, a project, and a final exam.
Operand and Opcode | Computer Science
The Opcode or the operation code is the part of the instruction that specifies the operation to be performed by the instruction. The CPU decodes (understands) the instruction with the help of the opcode. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on Operand and Opcode:- http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/computer-science/computer-architecture/operand-and-opcode.aspx
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isa architecture
The document discusses instruction set architecture (ISA), describing it as the interface between software and hardware that defines the programming model and machine language instructions. It provides details on RISC ISAs like MIPS and how they aim to have simpler instructions, more registers, load/store architectures, and pipelining to improve performance compared to CISC ISAs. The document also discusses different types of ISA designs including stack-based, accumulator-based, and register-to-register architectures.
Instruction Set Architecture
The document discusses instruction set architecture (ISA), which is part of computer architecture related to programming. It defines the native data types, instructions, registers, addressing modes, and other low-level aspects of a computer's operation. Well-known ISAs include x86, ARM, MIPS, and RISC. A good ISA lasts through many implementations, supports a variety of uses, and provides convenient functions while permitting efficient implementation. Assembly language is used to program at the level of an ISA's registers, instructions, and execution order.
Instruction cycle
Instruction cycle in computer architecture. In this slides you can learn how processor process an instruction.
isa architecture
FLPU = Floating Points operations Unit
PFCU = Prefetch control unit
AOU = Atomic Operations Unit
Memory-Management unit (MMU)
MAR (memory address register)
MDR (memory data register)
BIU (Bus Interface Unit)
ARS (Application Register Set)
FRS File Register Set
(SRS) single register set
instruction codes
- Computer instruction codes are the basic components of machine language programs and are encoded in binary.
- Each instruction code contains an operation code that designates the operation (e.g. add, subtract) and may contain operands that indicate where data is located in registers or memory.
- The CPU uses the operation code and operands to perform a sequence of micro-operations and control hardware to carry out the instruction.
Chapter 9
The document discusses the key requirements placed on a processor during instruction execution. A processor must fetch instructions from memory, interpret the instruction to determine the required action, and may need to fetch data from memory or I/O modules to execute the instruction. Understanding these fundamental requirements is important for analyzing the organization of a processor.
Chapter 1
This document provides an introduction to a course on computer organization and assembly language. It will cover the main hardware components of a computer system, including memory, the CPU, and I/O ports. It will also discuss how instructions are executed in the fetch-execute cycle. Students will learn assembly language and how it maps to the underlying machine language understood by the CPU. They will be assessed through quizzes, assignments, a project, and a final exam.
Operand and Opcode | Computer Science
The Opcode or the operation code is the part of the instruction that specifies the operation to be performed by the instruction. The CPU decodes (understands) the instruction with the help of the opcode. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on Operand and Opcode:- http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/computer-science/computer-architecture/operand-and-opcode.aspx
Computer Organisation and Architecture
The document describes the basic processing unit of a computer. It discusses the single bus organization of a processor's data path. It explains the operational steps to transfer data between registers and perform arithmetic/logic operations using an ALU. It also describes how instructions are fetched from memory and executed step-by-step, including fetching operands, performing operations, and storing results. Branch instructions require updating the program counter register with the target address.
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This document provides an overview of register transfer, micro operations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses the key concepts of a stored program, instructions, and how instructions are executed through an instruction cycle that involves fetching, decoding, and executing instructions via a sequence of microoperations controlled by a sequence counter register. It also describes the register architecture and instruction set of the Mano computer model, which uses a basic set of registers and a hierarchical 1+3 bit instruction format to support 25 instructions for arithmetic, logic, data movement, program control, and I/O operations.
Chapter 8
This document discusses the structure and function of a CPU. It describes the basic components of a processor including the ALU, control unit, and registers. It explains the roles of different types of registers like general purpose, data, address, and control/status registers. The document then outlines the basic instruction cycle including fetch, execute, and interrupt cycles. It provides diagrams to illustrate the data flow during these cycles. Finally, it introduces the concept of pipelining which allows overlapping the stages of instruction processing to improve processor throughput.
Part I:Introduction to assembly language
This document provides an overview of assembly language for the x86 architecture. It discusses what assembly language is, why it is used, basic concepts like data sizes, and details of the x86 architecture like its modes of operation and basic program execution registers including general purpose registers, segment registers, the EFLAGS register, and status flags.
Register transfer and micro-operation
1) The document discusses different types of micro-operations including arithmetic, logic, shift, and register transfer micro-operations.
2) It provides examples of common arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, increment, and decrement. It also describes logic operations like AND, OR, XOR, and complement.
3) Shift micro-operations include logical shifts, circular shifts, and arithmetic shifts which affect the serial input differently.
Computer organization and architecture
This document discusses computer instruction and addressing modes. It covers basic instruction types like data transfers, arithmetic/logical operations, program control, and I/O transfers. It also describes common addressing modes like register, immediate, indirect, indexed, relative, auto-increment and auto-decrement that allow flexible access to operands in memory and registers. Instruction execution involves fetching and executing instructions sequentially based on the program counter until a branch instruction redirects execution.
Bca 2nd sem-u-2.1-overview of register transfer, micro operations and basic c...
This document provides an overview of register transfer, microoperations, and basic computer organization and design. It discusses how simple digital systems can be characterized by their registers and operations. Microoperations are the elementary operations performed on register data during each clock cycle. A computer's organization is defined by its registers, microoperation set, and control signals. The register transfer level views a system in terms of its registers, data transformations within registers, and data transfers between registers. Register transfer language can describe a computer's functions using microoperations.
Chapter 4 the processor
This document provides an overview of implementing a processor that executes a subset of the MIPS instruction set. It describes the basic components needed, including an instruction memory to store and fetch instructions, registers to hold data, an ALU to perform arithmetic and logical operations, multiplexers to direct data flow, and a program counter to keep track of the next instruction address. The implementation is built up incrementally, first explaining how instructions are fetched and the program counter updated. It then describes adding components for R-type instructions like arithmetic and logical operations. Finally, it discusses adding units to support load/store memory instructions by sign-extending offsets and calculating effective addresses. The goal is to explain at a high level how the MIPS
Instruction cycle
The instruction cycle describes the process a computer follows to execute each machine language instruction. It involves 4 phases: 1) Fetch - the instruction is fetched from memory and placed in the instruction register. 2) Decode - the instruction is analyzed and decoded. 3) Execute - the processor executes the instruction by performing the specified operation. 4) The program counter is then incremented to point to the next instruction, and the cycle repeats. Each phase involves transferring data between the program counter, instruction register, memory, and other components via a common bus under the control of a timing unit. The instruction specifies the operation to be performed, such as a memory reference, register operation, or I/O access.
Instruction codes
An instruction code consists of an operation code and operand(s) that specify the operation to perform and data to use. Operation codes are binary codes that define operations like addition, subtraction, etc. Early computers stored programs and data in separate memory sections and used a single accumulator register. Modern computers have multiple registers for temporary storage and performing operations faster than using only memory. Computer instructions encode an operation code and operand fields to specify the basic operations to perform on data stored in registers or memory.
Computer organization basics
The document discusses various types of computers and their characteristics. It begins by classifying computers based on speed, cost, computational power, and application. It then describes different types of computers like desktop computers, notebook computers, workstations, mainframe systems, server systems, and supercomputers. It also defines basic computer terminology and concepts like hardware, software, memory, storage, inputs, outputs, and processing. The document further explains functional units of a computer like CPU, memory, and bus structure. It concludes with discussing instruction execution, instruction formats, and branching in computer programs.
Instruction Set Architecture
The document discusses different instruction set architectures including stack, accumulator, memory-memory, register-memory, and load-store architectures. It compares the pros and cons of each in terms of hardware requirements, parallelism, pipelining, and compiler optimization. Instruction formats are classified based on the number of operands and addresses. Code size and number of required memory accesses are compared for 4-address, 3-address, 2-address, 1-address, and 0-address instructions.
Lec 12-15 mips instruction set processor
The document describes the design of a single-cycle MIPS processor datapath and control unit. It begins by introducing the MIPS instruction set and identifying common functions across instructions. It then discusses the benefits and drawbacks of single-cycle versus multi-cycle instruction execution. The document proceeds to show how the datapath would be designed for different MIPS instruction types like R-type, load, store, and branch instructions. It combines the individual datapaths into an overall single-cycle datapath and discusses the need for control signals and units. In the end, it summarizes the key advantages of multi-cycle designs over single-cycle and previews pipelining as an advanced multi-cycle technique.
Types of instructions
Types of instructions can be categorized into data transfer, arithmetic, and logical/program control instructions. Data transfer instructions like MOV copy data between registers and memory. Arithmetic instructions include INC/DEC to increment/decrement values, ADD/SUB for addition/subtraction, and MUL/DIV for multiplication/division. Logical instructions perform bitwise operations while program control instructions manage program flow.
Data manipulation instructions
Data manipulation instructions perform operations on data and provide computational capabilities for computers. These instructions are divided into three basic types: arithmetic instructions, logical and bit manipulation instructions, and shift instructions. Arithmetic instructions include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and incrementing and decrementing values. Logical and bit manipulation instructions operate on individual bits and include AND, OR, XOR, and clearing, complementing, and manipulating carry bits. Shift instructions shift the contents of an operand left or right in logical, arithmetic, or rotate operations.
Computer Architecture - Program Execution
The document discusses program execution in the central processing unit (CPU). It explains that the CPU fetches instructions from memory one at a time and executes them using its control unit, arithmetic logic unit, and registers. The execution process involves fetching the instruction from memory into the instruction register, decoding what type of instruction it is, executing the appropriate operation using components like the accumulator and memory address register, and storing the output, which may update the program counter. Key components like the control unit, registers, and arithmetic logic unit work together to precisely carry out the steps specified in the stored program.
05 instruction set design and architecture
This document summarizes key aspects of instruction set architecture (ISA) design. It discusses different classifications of ISAs such as accumulator, stack-based, memory-memory, register-memory, and load-store architectures. It also covers operand locations, types of addressing modes, operations, and evolution of instruction sets. The document concludes by previewing that the next topic will cover the MIPS instruction set as a case study.
Machine cycles
The document defines timing diagrams, machine cycles, and T-states. It then discusses the specific machine cycles of the 8085 microprocessor, including the opcode fetch cycle, memory read/write cycles, I/O read/write cycles, and interrupt acknowledge cycle. It provides examples of timing diagrams for various instructions like STA, INR, and discusses registers and instructions like STAX, MVI, LHLD.
Processor Basics
The document outlines the basics of processor operation, including the instruction cycle, representation of machine instructions, and types of instructions. It discusses how the processor clock synchronizes activities and how the program counter increments to fetch each subsequent instruction from memory. The core instruction cycle stages are fetch, decode, and execute, where the processor fetches instructions and data from memory, decodes the operation, and executes it by performing the required operation.
Introduction to Assembly Language Programming
This presentation provides a basic idea about Assembly Language Programming using NASM ( Netwide Assembler ).
Precessor organization
- The processor stores data and instructions temporarily in registers during execution. It needs registers to store the location of the current instruction and data/instructions being used.
- An instruction cycle involves fetching the next instruction from memory, decoding it, and executing it. Fetching involves reading the instruction from memory into the processor. Execution interprets the instruction and performs the specified operation.
- Common operations include fetching data from memory into a register, storing a register to memory, transferring between registers, and arithmetic/logic operations using the ALU with results stored in a register. Fetching and storing involve transferring addresses and data between the memory address register (MAR), memory data register (MDR), and memory bus.
Computer architecture instruction formats
Computer architecture instruction formats seminar
Mustansiriya University
Department of Education
Computer Science
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This document discusses computer instruction and addressing modes. It covers basic instruction types like data transfers, arithmetic/logical operations, program control, and I/O transfers. It also describes common addressing modes like register, immediate, indirect, indexed, relative, auto-increment and auto-decrement that allow flexible access to operands in memory and registers. Instruction execution involves fetching and executing instructions sequentially based on the program counter until a branch instruction redirects execution.
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This document provides an overview of implementing a processor that executes a subset of the MIPS instruction set. It describes the basic components needed, including an instruction memory to store and fetch instructions, registers to hold data, an ALU to perform arithmetic and logical operations, multiplexers to direct data flow, and a program counter to keep track of the next instruction address. The implementation is built up incrementally, first explaining how instructions are fetched and the program counter updated. It then describes adding components for R-type instructions like arithmetic and logical operations. Finally, it discusses adding units to support load/store memory instructions by sign-extending offsets and calculating effective addresses. The goal is to explain at a high level how the MIPS
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An instruction code consists of an operation code and operand(s) that specify the operation to perform and data to use. Operation codes are binary codes that define operations like addition, subtraction, etc. Early computers stored programs and data in separate memory sections and used a single accumulator register. Modern computers have multiple registers for temporary storage and performing operations faster than using only memory. Computer instructions encode an operation code and operand fields to specify the basic operations to perform on data stored in registers or memory.
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4bit PC_DSD_report[CSE-08_Section-B2_Group-02]
Courtesy:
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Please send the answers to my email. Mirre06@hotmail.comSomeone se.pdf
Please send the answers to my email. Mirre06@hotmail.com
Someone sent me wrong answers so please send me correct answers thanks.
1) What is a register? Be precise. Name at least two components in the LMC that meet the
qualications for a register. Name several different kinds of values that a register might hold.
Suppose that the following instructions are found at the given locations in memory:
20
LDA
50
21
ADD
51
50
724
51
006
a. Show the contents of the IR, the PC, the MAR, the MDR, and A at the conclusion of
instruction 20.
b. Show the contents of each register as each step of the fetch–execute cycle is performed for
instruction 21.
3) what is the purpose of the instructions register? What takes the place of the instruction
register in the LMC?
4) What is the explanation for the reasons why programmed IO does not work very well when
the IO device is a hard disk or a graphics display?
5) the x86 series is an example of a CPU architecture. as you are probably aware there are a
number of different chip including the x86 architecture? What word defines the difference
between the various CPUs that share the same architecture? Name at least one different CPU
architecture
20
LDA
50
21
ADD
51
50
724
51
006
Solution
1)The Little Man Computer (LMC) is an instructional model of a computer, created by Dr. Stuart
Madnick in 1965.The LMC is generally used to teach students, because it models a simple von
Neumann architecture computer - which has all of the basic features of a modern computer. It
can be programmed in machine code (albeit in decimal rather than binary) or assembly code.
Register:
In a computer, a register is one of a small set of data holding places that are part of a computer
processor . A register may hold a computer instruction , a storage address, or any kind of data
(such as a bit sequence or individual characters). Some instructions specify registers as part of
the instruction. For example, an instruction may specify that the contents of two defined registers
be added together and then placed in a specified register. A register must be large enough to hold
an instruction - for example, in a 32-bit instruction computer, a register must be 32 bits in length.
In some computer designs, there are smaller registers - for example, half-registers - for shorter
instructions. Depending on the processor design and language rules, registers may be numbered
or have arbitrary names.
Small, permanent storage locations within the CPU used for a particular purpose
Manipulated directly by the Control Unit
Wired for specific function
Size in bits or bytes (not in MB like memory)
Can hold data, an address or an instruction
Use of Registers
Scratchpad for currently executing program
Holds data needed quickly or frequently
Stores information about status of CPU and currently executing program
Address of next program instruction
Signals from external devices
General Purpose Registers
User-visible registers
Hold intermediate results or data values, e.g., l.
ICT-Lecture_12(VonNeumannArchitecture).pptx
The document discusses the Von Neumann architecture and stored program concept. It describes how John Von Neumann proposed storing both computer instructions and data in memory. This became known as the Von Neumann model, where the central processing unit can fetch both instructions and data from memory to execute programs. It established the basic structure of having a memory, processing unit, and control unit that orchestrates instruction execution in a fetch-execute cycle that is still used in modern computers.
CPU.ppd
The document discusses the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and its main components and functions. It provides details about:
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- 1. CONTROL UNIT UNIT-2 Mohammad Asif Iqbal Assistant Professor, Deptt of ECE, JETGI, Barabanki
- 2. “Instruction set architecture is the structure of a computer that a machine language programmer (or a compiler) must understand to write a correct (timing independent) program for that machine” –IBM introducing 360 (1964) Instructions Definition An instruction is an order given to a computer processor by a computer program. At lowest level, each instruction is a sequence of 0s and 1s that describes a physical operations the computer has to perform, such as (add); And depending on the particular instruction type, the specification of special storage areas called register.
- 3. Elements of a machine instructionsEach instruction must contain the information required by the processor for execution. Operation fetch Instruction operation decoding Operand address calculation Operand fetch Data operation Operand address calculation Operand store Instruction address calculation Instruction complete, fetch next instruction Multiple operands Multiple results
- 4. Continue… 1. Operation code: specifies the operation to be performed(e.g. add, I/O). The operation is specify by a binary code known as operation code, or opcode. 2. Source operand reference: The operation may involve one or more source operands, that is, operands that are input for the operation 3. Result operand reference: The operation may produce a result. 4. Next instruction reference: This tells the processor where to fetch the next instruction after the execution of this instruction is complete.
- 5. Types of instructions Consider a high-level language instruction that could be expressed in a language such as BASIC or FORTRAN, For example, X = X + Y This statement instruct the computer to add the value stored in Y to the value stored in X and put the result in X. how might this be accomplished with machine instructions? Lets assume that the variable X & Y corresponds to locations 513 and 514. if we assume a simple set of machine instructions, this operation could be accomplished with three instructions 1. Load a register with the contents of memory location 513. 2.Add the contents of memory location 514 to the register. 3.Store the contents of the register in memory location 513. High level language Machine language Thus the set of Machine instructions must be sufficient to express any of the instructions from a high level language
- 6. Thus keeping in mind the previous discussion we can categorize instruction type as follows: 1. Data processing: Arithmetic & logic instructions 2. Data storage: Memory instructions 3. Data movement: I/O instructions 4. Control: Test and branch instructions
- 7. Instruction cycles and subcycles (fetch and execute etc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 ALU +1 Instruction decoder Program counter Memory Address Register Memory Buffer Register Current Instruction Register Op-code Operand Accumulator Data Bus Address Bus Main Memory 0000 0000 0000 0011 0101 0000 0000 0110 FETCH MAR ← [PC] 0000 0000 0000 0011 PC ← [PC] + 1 0000 0000 0000 0100 MBR ← memory content 0101 0000 0000 0110 0101 0000 0000 0110 CIR ← [MBR] Decode Unit Opcode operand Instruction ……….. ……….. 0101 Address load ………... ………… 0000 0000 0110 0100 0000 0110 0101 0100 0000 0110 0101
- 8. Register Transfers Suppose we have to transfer the contents of a register R1 to the register R4. This can be accomplished as follows •Enable the output of register R1 by setting R1out to 1. this places the contents of R1 on the processor bus. •Enable the input of register R4 by setting R4in to 1. this loads data from the processor bus into register R4. R1out R4in
- 9. Register Transfers…. Ri(in) = 0 Ri(in) = 1 Ri(out) = 0 = Off Ri(out) = 1 = On
- 10. Performing an arithmetic or logic operation Suppose we have to add the contents of register R1 to those of R2 and store the result in register R3. Suggest the steps required. 1. R1out, Yin 2. R2out, Select Y, Add, Zin 3. Zout, R3in
- 11. Fetching a word from memory
- 12. Continued…. 4. Load MDR from the memory bus 3. Wait for the MFC response from the memory As an example of a read operation, consider the instruction Move (R1), R2. Following are the steps required to execute this instruction are: 1. MAR → [R1] 2. Start a Read operation on the memory bus 5. [R2]→MDR •The response time of each memory access varies (cache miss, memory-mapped I/O,…). •To accommodate this, the processor waits until it receives an indication that the requested operation has been completed (Memory-Function-Completed, MFC).
- 13. Timing Assume MAR is always available on the address lines of the memory bus. 1Step Clock MARin MAR ← [R1] Read 2 Will cause the bus interface circuit to send a read command, MR on the bus Address MR MDRinE Data MFC 3 MDRout 3. MDRout, R2in 1. R1out,MARin, Read 2. MDRinE, WMFC N.B.- here we have reduced the steps, now these are three only.
- 14. Storing a Word in Memory DO IT BY YOUR OWN
- 15. Execution of a complete Instruction REFER TO SLIDE NO 7.
- 16. THANK YOU!