In this presentation, all kind of computer Memories are explained.
These PPTs are better presentable in Slide Show, that's not possible here, the Explanatory Videos are available at
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCaVNvNzkb01ZMT1GDeITM9w
The document discusses a 5T SRAM cell for embedded cache memory. It begins by explaining the basic operations of memory and different types of memory like RAM and ROM. It then discusses the structure and operation of a typical 6T SRAM cell. It introduces a 5T SRAM cell that aims to reduce leakage and increase density compared to 6T cells. The document outlines the read and write operations of the 5T cell and provides results of implementing the cell showing improvements in leakage and area. It concludes by discussing potential applications and areas for future work.
The document discusses Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM). DRAM uses a capacitor and transistor to store each bit of data, which allows it to be implemented using less space than SRAM. However, DRAM is volatile and requires periodic refreshing to prevent data loss as the capacitor charge leaks over time. Common DRAM configurations include one transistor cells, three transistor cells, and four transistor cells. The document outlines the read and write operations for DRAM and how refreshing maintains the stored data.
The document discusses the organization and operation of dynamic random access memory (DRAM). DRAM uses capacitors to store bits of data in memory cells that must be periodically refreshed. It describes how DRAM cells are arranged in a grid structure with rows and columns, and how row and column addresses are used to access individual cells. The document also explains techniques like fast page mode that allow for faster access to blocks of data within the same row without needing to reselect the row address.
SRAM is used as cache memory interfacing between DRAM and the CPU due to its faster access speeds compared to DRAM. It is also used in low power applications where DRAM refresh currents would be too high. The SRAM cell consists of a bi-stable flip-flop connected to internal circuitry by two access transistors. To read or write data, the word line is activated, connecting the flip-flop to bit lines and sense amplifiers. The data is volatile but does not need refresh like DRAM as it does not leak over time. Different SRAM cell designs use either 4 transistors plus resistive loads or 6 transistors.
The document discusses cache organization and mapping techniques. It describes:
1) Direct mapping where each block maps to one line. Set associative mapping divides cache into sets with multiple lines per set.
2) Replacement algorithms like FIFO and LRU that determine which block to replace when the cache is full.
3) Write policies like write-through and write-back that handle writing cached data back to main memory.
This document summarizes different types of computer memory technologies including ROM, RAM, EEPROM, SRAM, and DRAM. It describes the volatility of different memory types and how SRAM uses 6 transistors per bit while DRAM uses only 1 transistor per bit by storing data as a charged or discharged capacitor. It also explains the refresh requirement for DRAM to prevent data loss from charge leakage and describes traditional DRAM timing with RAS and CAS signals.
This document is a presentation on RAM that was presented by Tipu Sultan and Md Shakhawat Hossain Sujon to Tafisr Ahmed Khan. It summarizes the key differences between SRAM and DRAM. SRAM does not require refresh cycles but is more expensive and slower than DRAM. A typical SRAM cell uses 6 transistors arranged in two cross-coupled inverters, while a DRAM cell uses one transistor and one capacitor. DRAM must perform periodic refresh cycles to maintain its data due to capacitor leakage, whereas SRAM maintains its data statically without refresh.
The document discusses a 5T SRAM cell for embedded cache memory. It begins by explaining the basic operations of memory and different types of memory like RAM and ROM. It then discusses the structure and operation of a typical 6T SRAM cell. It introduces a 5T SRAM cell that aims to reduce leakage and increase density compared to 6T cells. The document outlines the read and write operations of the 5T cell and provides results of implementing the cell showing improvements in leakage and area. It concludes by discussing potential applications and areas for future work.
The document discusses Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM). DRAM uses a capacitor and transistor to store each bit of data, which allows it to be implemented using less space than SRAM. However, DRAM is volatile and requires periodic refreshing to prevent data loss as the capacitor charge leaks over time. Common DRAM configurations include one transistor cells, three transistor cells, and four transistor cells. The document outlines the read and write operations for DRAM and how refreshing maintains the stored data.
The document discusses the organization and operation of dynamic random access memory (DRAM). DRAM uses capacitors to store bits of data in memory cells that must be periodically refreshed. It describes how DRAM cells are arranged in a grid structure with rows and columns, and how row and column addresses are used to access individual cells. The document also explains techniques like fast page mode that allow for faster access to blocks of data within the same row without needing to reselect the row address.
SRAM is used as cache memory interfacing between DRAM and the CPU due to its faster access speeds compared to DRAM. It is also used in low power applications where DRAM refresh currents would be too high. The SRAM cell consists of a bi-stable flip-flop connected to internal circuitry by two access transistors. To read or write data, the word line is activated, connecting the flip-flop to bit lines and sense amplifiers. The data is volatile but does not need refresh like DRAM as it does not leak over time. Different SRAM cell designs use either 4 transistors plus resistive loads or 6 transistors.
The document discusses cache organization and mapping techniques. It describes:
1) Direct mapping where each block maps to one line. Set associative mapping divides cache into sets with multiple lines per set.
2) Replacement algorithms like FIFO and LRU that determine which block to replace when the cache is full.
3) Write policies like write-through and write-back that handle writing cached data back to main memory.
This document summarizes different types of computer memory technologies including ROM, RAM, EEPROM, SRAM, and DRAM. It describes the volatility of different memory types and how SRAM uses 6 transistors per bit while DRAM uses only 1 transistor per bit by storing data as a charged or discharged capacitor. It also explains the refresh requirement for DRAM to prevent data loss from charge leakage and describes traditional DRAM timing with RAS and CAS signals.
This document is a presentation on RAM that was presented by Tipu Sultan and Md Shakhawat Hossain Sujon to Tafisr Ahmed Khan. It summarizes the key differences between SRAM and DRAM. SRAM does not require refresh cycles but is more expensive and slower than DRAM. A typical SRAM cell uses 6 transistors arranged in two cross-coupled inverters, while a DRAM cell uses one transistor and one capacitor. DRAM must perform periodic refresh cycles to maintain its data due to capacitor leakage, whereas SRAM maintains its data statically without refresh.
RAM (random-access memory) is a type of memory that can be accessed randomly; each byte stored at a RAM chip can be accessed directly without reading through consecutive locations. RAM is organized into words of a certain number of bits that are accessed via an address. Larger RAMs can be constructed by combining smaller RAM chips through an addressing scheme. Dynamic RAM must be regularly refreshed to maintain its data but provides higher density than static RAM.
Solving ProportionsRead the following instructions in order to.docxrafbolet0
Solving Proportions
Read the following instructions in order to complete this assignment:
1. Solve problem 56 on page 437 of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra. Set up the two ratios and write your equation choosing an appropriate variable for the bear population.
Problem #56: Bear Population. To estimate the size of the bear population on the Keweenaw Peninsula, conservationists captured, tagged, and released 50 bears. One Year later, a random sample of 100 bears included only 2 tagged bears. What is the conservationist’s estimate of the size of the bear population?
2. Complete problem 10 on page 444 of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra. Show all steps in solving the problem and explain what you are doing as you go along.
Problem #10:
3. Write a two to three page paper that is formatted in APA style and according to the Math Writing Guide. Format your math work as shown in the example and be concise in your reasoning. In the body of your essay, please make sure to include:
· Your solution to the above problems, making sure to include all mathematical work, and an explanation for each step
· A discussion of the following: What form of an equation do you end up with in problem 10? What do you notice about the coefficient of x compared to the original problem? Do you think there might be another way to solve this equation for y than with the proportion method? How would you do it?
· An incorporation of the following four math vocabulary words into your paper. Use bold font to emphasize the words in your writing. (Do not write definitions for the words; use them appropriately in sentences describing your math work.):
· Extraneous
· Proportion
· Cross multiply
· Extreme-means
The paper must be at least two pages in length and formatted according to APA style. Cite your resources in text and on the reference page. For information regarding APA samples and tutorials, visit the Ashford Writing Center, within the Learning Resources tab on the left navigation toolbar.
ECE 115
Introduction to Electrical and Computer Engineering
Laboratory Experiment #12
Memory
Objective: In this experiment you will learn how computer memory works. The kind of memory
that will be investigated is called RAM, random access memory. The basic building block of
RAM is the flip-flop, (FF). You will learn how to design memory with the FF.
Memories Are Made of These
Computer systems use memory generally for two purposes: to store data and to hold programs.
The data may be predetermined and input to a program or may be generated by an executing
program to be outputted or used later by the program. For these different kinds of data,
different kinds of memory are used. RAM (random access memory) is the kind of memory to
which data can be written and from which we can read data in any sequence. RAM keeps its
data content as long as power is supplied to the RAM circuitry, and all data content is lost when
power to the circuitry is t.
The document discusses computer memory and its types. It begins by defining computer memory as the storage space where data and instructions are stored to be processed. Memory is divided into small parts called cells, each with a unique address. There are two main types of memory: internal memory like cache and RAM, and external memory like hard disks. Memory hierarchy characteristics include increasing capacity, decreasing cost per bit, and increasing access time as one moves down the hierarchy. RAM is further divided into static RAM and dynamic RAM. The document also discusses different types of ROM and how programmable logic devices like PROM, PAL, PLA, and FPGA work.
Designed a fully customized 128x10b SRAM by constructing schematic & virtuoso layout of memory cell array (6T cell), row & column decoder, pre-charge circuit, write circuit and sense amplifier using Cadence. Manually placed and routed all components, performed DRC & LVS debugging of constructed schematic and layout and ran PEX to generate the final Netlist, Hspice Spectre simulation of final design for verification of the correct functionality and analysis of best read, best write cycles & the worst case timing for read and write. Timing and power consumed is analyzed through STA-Primetime (Static timing Analysis)
Memory systems can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary memory includes RAM and ROM. RAM is further divided into static RAM and dynamic RAM. Dynamic RAM includes synchronous DRAM and asynchronous DRAM. The maximum memory size is determined by the processor's address lines. Data is transferred between memory and the processor via memory address and data registers. Random access memory allows direct access to any memory location using its row and column address. Dynamic RAM is the most common memory type, using a transistor and capacitor in each memory cell to store data. Dynamic RAM must be regularly refreshed to prevent data loss from capacitor leakage.
Lab 7 -RAM and ROM, Xilinx, Digelent BASYS experimentor boardKatrina Little
This document describes an experiment using a 32x4 RAM implemented on a BASYS1 FPGA board. The objective is to introduce RAM as a means of implementing combinational logic functions. The document provides background on RAM and ROM, describes a function F1 to be implemented, and provides a design methodology, test plan, and questions. The test plan involves programming the RAM by writing data to different addresses, verifying the output, and generating a truth table.
A memory unit stores binary information that can be retrieved for processing. There are two main types of memory: random access memory (RAM) which allows both writing and reading of information, and read-only memory (ROM) which only allows reading of permanently stored information. ROM stores binary data through a programmed network of connections within the memory chip. It uses address lines and decoding circuitry to select the output data word corresponding to the input address.
This document discusses the memory system and its various components. It covers the basics of memory addressing and the connection between CPU and main memory. It describes the internal organization of semiconductor memory chips and different types of memories like static RAM, dynamic RAM and ROM. It explains the memory hierarchy concept and cache memory design. It provides details about memory mapping functions.
This document provides an overview of RAM (random access memory). It describes RAM as volatile memory that does not retain data when power is turned off. The document then discusses RAM components like SRAM and DRAM. SRAM stores bits using a flip-flop circuit that retains data as long as power is applied, while DRAM uses a capacitor and transistor that must be regularly refreshed to maintain its charge and data. The document concludes with a comparison of SRAM and DRAM, noting key differences in their data volatility, refresh needs, cell structures, speeds and costs.
DIGITAL DESIGNS SLIDES 7 ENGINEERING 2ND YEARkasheen2803
This document provides information about computer memory. It discusses the different types of memory including internal memory (cache and primary memory) and external memory (magnetic disk, optical disk). It explains that memory is divided into cells that each have a unique address. It also describes the memory hierarchy from fastest and smallest capacity (cache) to slower and larger capacity (external storage). The document discusses different memory devices including RAM, ROM, DRAM and SRAM. It provides details on how memory works including addressing, read/write cycles, and decoding. It also covers programmable logic devices like PLDs, PALs, PLAs, CPLDs and FPGAs.
The document describes the design and simulation of a 16-bit 4x4 SRAM memory using a 6T SRAM cell. It analyzes the SRAM cell and array architecture, including precharging, addressing, and data retention voltage. Simulation results show the read and write operations and compare the static power of a traditional 4x4 SRAM array (730.8uW) to a multi-divided wordline array (155.8uW), demonstrating power reduction using the divided wordline technique.
The document discusses several key concepts related to computer memory systems:
1. It describes the maximum size and organization of main memory, including byte-addressability and the connection between the CPU and memory.
2. It discusses measures of memory speed like access time and cycle time, and techniques to increase effective memory size and speed like cache memory and virtual memory.
3. It provides details on the basic organization and operation of different types of semiconductor memories like SRAM, DRAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, and flash memory.
This document provides information about Subhromitan Chatterjee's academic details such as name, stream, roll number, paper name, and paper code. It then discusses different types of read-only memory (ROM) including their introduction, characteristics, differences between ROM and RAM, examples of ROM usage, and how ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory work.
This document discusses digital electronics and memory devices. It covers the following topics:
1. Different types of memory devices like ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, RAM, and their basic structures and workings.
2. Programmable logic devices like PLA, PAL, and FPGA and how they can be used to implement combinational logic circuits.
3. Digital integrated circuits concepts like logic levels, propagation delay, power dissipation, fan-out, noise margin and different logic families like RTL, TTL, ECL, and CMOS.
ROM(Read Only Memory ) is computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read.
This document provides an overview of read-only memory (ROM) and its variations. It discusses that ROM is a type of memory that retains data permanently, even when power is removed. The document describes the basic components and functioning of ROM, including its input lines, output lines, and decoded minterms. It then explains different types of ROM such as PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory, focusing on their ability to be programmed and erased. The document provides details on how each type stores and retrieves data, and their typical access times.
The document discusses the memory system in computers including main memory, cache memory, and different types of memory chips. It provides details on the following key points in 3 sentences:
The document discusses the different levels of memory hierarchy including main memory, cache memory, and auxiliary memory. It describes the basic concepts of memory including addressing schemes, memory access time, and memory cycle time. Examples of different types of memory chips are discussed such as SRAM, DRAM, ROM, and cache memory organization and mapping techniques.
ROM (read-only memory) is a type of non-volatile memory that can only be read and cannot be normally modified. Data is stored permanently, even when power is removed. Different types include PROM (programmable ROM), EPROM (erasable programmable ROM), and EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM). Flash memory, a newer type, allows data to be written and erased electronically and in blocks while still in the device. ROM holds programs and data permanently to start up a computer, while RAM is read-write memory used for active programs and data.
This document describes the design of small directive antennas for Internet of Things (IoT) applications. It outlines the introduction to IoT and wireless sensor networks (WSN), discusses antenna theory including common parameters and array designs, and presents the practical work done to design directive antennas operating at 868MHz and 2400MHz. Miniaturization techniques were used to reduce the antenna size. The results showed the designed antennas met requirements for gain, front-to-back ratio, and matching while providing knowledge in IoT, WSN, antenna fundamentals, and design optimization software.
RAM (random-access memory) is a type of memory that can be accessed randomly; each byte stored at a RAM chip can be accessed directly without reading through consecutive locations. RAM is organized into words of a certain number of bits that are accessed via an address. Larger RAMs can be constructed by combining smaller RAM chips through an addressing scheme. Dynamic RAM must be regularly refreshed to maintain its data but provides higher density than static RAM.
Solving ProportionsRead the following instructions in order to.docxrafbolet0
Solving Proportions
Read the following instructions in order to complete this assignment:
1. Solve problem 56 on page 437 of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra. Set up the two ratios and write your equation choosing an appropriate variable for the bear population.
Problem #56: Bear Population. To estimate the size of the bear population on the Keweenaw Peninsula, conservationists captured, tagged, and released 50 bears. One Year later, a random sample of 100 bears included only 2 tagged bears. What is the conservationist’s estimate of the size of the bear population?
2. Complete problem 10 on page 444 of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra. Show all steps in solving the problem and explain what you are doing as you go along.
Problem #10:
3. Write a two to three page paper that is formatted in APA style and according to the Math Writing Guide. Format your math work as shown in the example and be concise in your reasoning. In the body of your essay, please make sure to include:
· Your solution to the above problems, making sure to include all mathematical work, and an explanation for each step
· A discussion of the following: What form of an equation do you end up with in problem 10? What do you notice about the coefficient of x compared to the original problem? Do you think there might be another way to solve this equation for y than with the proportion method? How would you do it?
· An incorporation of the following four math vocabulary words into your paper. Use bold font to emphasize the words in your writing. (Do not write definitions for the words; use them appropriately in sentences describing your math work.):
· Extraneous
· Proportion
· Cross multiply
· Extreme-means
The paper must be at least two pages in length and formatted according to APA style. Cite your resources in text and on the reference page. For information regarding APA samples and tutorials, visit the Ashford Writing Center, within the Learning Resources tab on the left navigation toolbar.
ECE 115
Introduction to Electrical and Computer Engineering
Laboratory Experiment #12
Memory
Objective: In this experiment you will learn how computer memory works. The kind of memory
that will be investigated is called RAM, random access memory. The basic building block of
RAM is the flip-flop, (FF). You will learn how to design memory with the FF.
Memories Are Made of These
Computer systems use memory generally for two purposes: to store data and to hold programs.
The data may be predetermined and input to a program or may be generated by an executing
program to be outputted or used later by the program. For these different kinds of data,
different kinds of memory are used. RAM (random access memory) is the kind of memory to
which data can be written and from which we can read data in any sequence. RAM keeps its
data content as long as power is supplied to the RAM circuitry, and all data content is lost when
power to the circuitry is t.
The document discusses computer memory and its types. It begins by defining computer memory as the storage space where data and instructions are stored to be processed. Memory is divided into small parts called cells, each with a unique address. There are two main types of memory: internal memory like cache and RAM, and external memory like hard disks. Memory hierarchy characteristics include increasing capacity, decreasing cost per bit, and increasing access time as one moves down the hierarchy. RAM is further divided into static RAM and dynamic RAM. The document also discusses different types of ROM and how programmable logic devices like PROM, PAL, PLA, and FPGA work.
Designed a fully customized 128x10b SRAM by constructing schematic & virtuoso layout of memory cell array (6T cell), row & column decoder, pre-charge circuit, write circuit and sense amplifier using Cadence. Manually placed and routed all components, performed DRC & LVS debugging of constructed schematic and layout and ran PEX to generate the final Netlist, Hspice Spectre simulation of final design for verification of the correct functionality and analysis of best read, best write cycles & the worst case timing for read and write. Timing and power consumed is analyzed through STA-Primetime (Static timing Analysis)
Memory systems can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary memory includes RAM and ROM. RAM is further divided into static RAM and dynamic RAM. Dynamic RAM includes synchronous DRAM and asynchronous DRAM. The maximum memory size is determined by the processor's address lines. Data is transferred between memory and the processor via memory address and data registers. Random access memory allows direct access to any memory location using its row and column address. Dynamic RAM is the most common memory type, using a transistor and capacitor in each memory cell to store data. Dynamic RAM must be regularly refreshed to prevent data loss from capacitor leakage.
Lab 7 -RAM and ROM, Xilinx, Digelent BASYS experimentor boardKatrina Little
This document describes an experiment using a 32x4 RAM implemented on a BASYS1 FPGA board. The objective is to introduce RAM as a means of implementing combinational logic functions. The document provides background on RAM and ROM, describes a function F1 to be implemented, and provides a design methodology, test plan, and questions. The test plan involves programming the RAM by writing data to different addresses, verifying the output, and generating a truth table.
A memory unit stores binary information that can be retrieved for processing. There are two main types of memory: random access memory (RAM) which allows both writing and reading of information, and read-only memory (ROM) which only allows reading of permanently stored information. ROM stores binary data through a programmed network of connections within the memory chip. It uses address lines and decoding circuitry to select the output data word corresponding to the input address.
This document discusses the memory system and its various components. It covers the basics of memory addressing and the connection between CPU and main memory. It describes the internal organization of semiconductor memory chips and different types of memories like static RAM, dynamic RAM and ROM. It explains the memory hierarchy concept and cache memory design. It provides details about memory mapping functions.
This document provides an overview of RAM (random access memory). It describes RAM as volatile memory that does not retain data when power is turned off. The document then discusses RAM components like SRAM and DRAM. SRAM stores bits using a flip-flop circuit that retains data as long as power is applied, while DRAM uses a capacitor and transistor that must be regularly refreshed to maintain its charge and data. The document concludes with a comparison of SRAM and DRAM, noting key differences in their data volatility, refresh needs, cell structures, speeds and costs.
DIGITAL DESIGNS SLIDES 7 ENGINEERING 2ND YEARkasheen2803
This document provides information about computer memory. It discusses the different types of memory including internal memory (cache and primary memory) and external memory (magnetic disk, optical disk). It explains that memory is divided into cells that each have a unique address. It also describes the memory hierarchy from fastest and smallest capacity (cache) to slower and larger capacity (external storage). The document discusses different memory devices including RAM, ROM, DRAM and SRAM. It provides details on how memory works including addressing, read/write cycles, and decoding. It also covers programmable logic devices like PLDs, PALs, PLAs, CPLDs and FPGAs.
The document describes the design and simulation of a 16-bit 4x4 SRAM memory using a 6T SRAM cell. It analyzes the SRAM cell and array architecture, including precharging, addressing, and data retention voltage. Simulation results show the read and write operations and compare the static power of a traditional 4x4 SRAM array (730.8uW) to a multi-divided wordline array (155.8uW), demonstrating power reduction using the divided wordline technique.
The document discusses several key concepts related to computer memory systems:
1. It describes the maximum size and organization of main memory, including byte-addressability and the connection between the CPU and memory.
2. It discusses measures of memory speed like access time and cycle time, and techniques to increase effective memory size and speed like cache memory and virtual memory.
3. It provides details on the basic organization and operation of different types of semiconductor memories like SRAM, DRAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, and flash memory.
This document provides information about Subhromitan Chatterjee's academic details such as name, stream, roll number, paper name, and paper code. It then discusses different types of read-only memory (ROM) including their introduction, characteristics, differences between ROM and RAM, examples of ROM usage, and how ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory work.
This document discusses digital electronics and memory devices. It covers the following topics:
1. Different types of memory devices like ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, RAM, and their basic structures and workings.
2. Programmable logic devices like PLA, PAL, and FPGA and how they can be used to implement combinational logic circuits.
3. Digital integrated circuits concepts like logic levels, propagation delay, power dissipation, fan-out, noise margin and different logic families like RTL, TTL, ECL, and CMOS.
ROM(Read Only Memory ) is computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read.
This document provides an overview of read-only memory (ROM) and its variations. It discusses that ROM is a type of memory that retains data permanently, even when power is removed. The document describes the basic components and functioning of ROM, including its input lines, output lines, and decoded minterms. It then explains different types of ROM such as PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory, focusing on their ability to be programmed and erased. The document provides details on how each type stores and retrieves data, and their typical access times.
The document discusses the memory system in computers including main memory, cache memory, and different types of memory chips. It provides details on the following key points in 3 sentences:
The document discusses the different levels of memory hierarchy including main memory, cache memory, and auxiliary memory. It describes the basic concepts of memory including addressing schemes, memory access time, and memory cycle time. Examples of different types of memory chips are discussed such as SRAM, DRAM, ROM, and cache memory organization and mapping techniques.
ROM (read-only memory) is a type of non-volatile memory that can only be read and cannot be normally modified. Data is stored permanently, even when power is removed. Different types include PROM (programmable ROM), EPROM (erasable programmable ROM), and EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM). Flash memory, a newer type, allows data to be written and erased electronically and in blocks while still in the device. ROM holds programs and data permanently to start up a computer, while RAM is read-write memory used for active programs and data.
This document describes the design of small directive antennas for Internet of Things (IoT) applications. It outlines the introduction to IoT and wireless sensor networks (WSN), discusses antenna theory including common parameters and array designs, and presents the practical work done to design directive antennas operating at 868MHz and 2400MHz. Miniaturization techniques were used to reduce the antenna size. The results showed the designed antennas met requirements for gain, front-to-back ratio, and matching while providing knowledge in IoT, WSN, antenna fundamentals, and design optimization software.
Chandrayaan-3 is India's third lunar mission to soft land on the lunar south pole region in order to conduct scientific experiments studying the lunar geology, atmosphere, and environment. The mission objectives are to demonstrate a safe soft landing on the lunar surface, conduct rover operations, and on-site surface experiments. Chandrayaan-3 was successfully launched on July 14, 2023 and is expected to land on the lunar surface between August 23-24, 2023. The mission advances India's space exploration capabilities and promotes international cooperation in space.
The document discusses digital transmission systems and coherent optical communications. It covers the following key points:
1) It describes the components and operation of optical receivers, including the challenges of detecting weak signals and making decisions on transmitted data. Error sources like intersymbol interference are also discussed.
2) Bit error rate and probability of error are defined, and formulas for calculating BER under Gaussian noise are provided.
3) Eye diagrams are introduced as a way to visualize signal quality over time. Factors like timing jitter and noise amplitude are described.
4) Coherent optical receivers are overviewed, including their advantages for high data rates and constellations. Challenges in carrier recovery using optical phase-locked
The document discusses optical coupling between light sources and optical fibers. It defines coupling efficiency as the ratio of power coupled into the fiber to power emitted from the source. Radiance and radiation patterns of different light sources are described. Expressions are provided for calculating the power coupled from a source to a fiber based on the source and fiber parameters. Methods to improve coupling efficiency such as lensing are also discussed. The document also covers topics like fiber-to-fiber coupling loss, mechanical misalignment loss, and fiber end defects.
Optical sources convert electrical signals to optical signals for data transmission through fiber optic cables. They include LEDs, ELEDs, SLEDs, and laser diodes (LDs). LEDs produce incoherent light while laser diodes produce coherent light. Incoherent light sources are used for multimode fiber systems while laser diodes are used for single mode systems. Laser diodes must operate above the lasing threshold to produce coherent light, otherwise they function as ELEDs. Tunable lasers can produce coherent light of a controlled variable wavelength, allowing them to replace multiple light sources in multi-wavelength transmission systems.
This document discusses optical waveguides and fiber optic modes. It begins by describing the mode patterns seen in the end faces of small diameter fibers. It then discusses multimode propagation and explains that many modes are excited, resulting in complex field and intensity patterns. Finally, it summarizes the key parameters and solutions used to determine the modes in cylindrical optical fibers.
This document provides information about light propagation through optical fibers. It begins by defining an optical fiber as a cylindrical waveguide made of glass that uses total internal reflection to transmit light. It then discusses the fiber's core and cladding layers and the conditions needed for total internal reflection. The key points covered include:
- Light propagation is guided through the fiber core by total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.
- Only rays entering the fiber core within the acceptance angle will continue propagating through total internal reflection.
- Electromagnetic mode theory is needed to fully understand light propagation in fibers. Discrete modes exist that are solutions to Maxwell's equations.
- The evanescent field that penetrates the cl
These slides contain the basic of sequential logic, and includes a detailed and animated description of Flip-Flop and latches, it includes shift registers and counters also. It covers the fourth unit of Digital Logic Design
The document discusses multiplexers, encoders, and decoders. It can be summarized as follows:
1) A multiplexer has N control inputs and 2^N data inputs, and selects one of the data inputs to pass to its single output based on the state of the control inputs.
2) Encoders convert numeric inputs into binary codes, while decoders convert binary codes into a single numeric output.
3) Common encoders include binary-coded decimal encoders that convert decimal numbers into 4-bit BCD codes to represent each digit.
Unit-1 Digital Design and Binary Numbers:Asif Iqbal
these slides contains general discerption about digital signals, binary numbers, digital numbers, and basic logic gates. it covers the first unit of AKTU syllabus.
The document discusses different types of special-purpose diodes used in electronics. It explains the construction and working of n-type and p-type semiconductors by doping silicon with different impurity atoms. The depletion region that forms when an n-type and p-type material are joined is also described. Different diodes are then explained, including light-emitting diodes, varactor diodes, tunnel diodes, Schottky barrier diodes, and photodiodes. Their key characteristics and applications are provided in brief. Circuit diagrams demonstrate how diodes can be used as switches and in tuning networks.
digital to analog (DAC) & analog to digital converter (ADC) Asif Iqbal
This document summarizes different types of digital to analog converters (DACs). It discusses the basic concept of converting digital data to analog signals by using a circuit that can produce analog outputs. It then describes several DAC specializations:
1) Binary weighted DAC which uses a reference voltage and weighted resistors to produce analog outputs corresponding to the digital input bits.
2) Flash type ADC which uses a voltage divider network and parallel comparators to directly convert an entire digital word to an analog voltage very quickly.
3) Successive approximation ADC which uses a comparator and feedback loop in a step-wise process to iteratively approximate the analog output voltage, providing a tradeoff between speed and circuit complexity.
The document contains a 25 question multiple choice quiz on analog and digital electronics concepts including operational amplifiers, comparators, and different types of memory. Some key points covered are:
- The characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier including infinite input impedance, infinite voltage gain, and zero output resistance.
- Factors that determine bandwidth and distortion in op-amp circuits such as gain, bandwidth product, and slew rate.
- The use of differential amplifiers in op-amp input stages to provide high common mode rejection ratio.
- How comparators and Schmitt triggers can convert irregular waveforms to regular ones using threshold voltages.
- Different types of read only memory including PROM, E
This document contains 30 multiple choice questions about analog and digital electronics concepts. The questions cover topics like shift registers, sequential circuits, counters, flip-flops, logic gates, memory and more. Sample questions include the number of clock signals needed to shift an 8-bit value out of a register, what determines the next state in a sequential circuit, and examples of cascading counters to implement a divide-by-60 function.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
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The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
Software Engineering and Project Management - Introduction, Modeling Concepts...Prakhyath Rai
Introduction, Modeling Concepts and Class Modeling: What is Object orientation? What is OO development? OO Themes; Evidence for usefulness of OO development; OO modeling history. Modeling
as Design technique: Modeling, abstraction, The Three models. Class Modeling: Object and Class Concept, Link and associations concepts, Generalization and Inheritance, A sample class model, Navigation of class models, and UML diagrams
Building the Analysis Models: Requirement Analysis, Analysis Model Approaches, Data modeling Concepts, Object Oriented Analysis, Scenario-Based Modeling, Flow-Oriented Modeling, class Based Modeling, Creating a Behavioral Model.
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Electric propulsion technology is widely used in many kinds of vehicles in recent years, and aircrafts are no exception. Technically, UAVs are electrically propelled but tend to produce a significant amount of noise and vibrations. Ion propulsion technology for drones is a potential solution to this problem. Ion propulsion technology is proven to be feasible in the earth’s atmosphere. The study presented in this article shows the design of EHD thrusters and power supply for ion propulsion drones along with performance optimization of high-voltage power supply for endurance in earth’s atmosphere.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
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Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
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the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
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our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
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3. As of now we have studied Registers, and that can typically
store 32/64 bits of information. And if we have a look on the
specification of a PC….
Do u know the size of this video I have uploaded
on YouTube?
Its size is 16MB =16×210KB =16×210×210B =16×210×210×8 BITS
So in this lecture we will try to understand how these things
are related, what is the purpose of these different memory
elements, how these are arrange inside a computer and their
working….
4. Before heading towards the main
content let me show you another
interesting thing
The changes in the size of these memory chips over the period of 5 decayed
The storage space is of 5MB The storage space is of 128GB
5. Dynamic RAM
Static RAM Programmable ROM
Electrically Programmable ROM
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
HDD
FDD
DVD
Pen-drive
MEMORY
MEMORY/
PRIMARY
RAM Random
Access Memory
ROM Read Only
Memory
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
SRAM
DRAM
STORAGE/
SECONDRY
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY
Primary memory is the
main memory of the
computer which can be
directly accessed by the
central processing unit,
whereas secondary
memory refers to the
external storage device
which can be used to
store data or information
permanently
Permanent or Semi-
permanent storage of
Data.
These both are random access
& By random access we mean
that all data in any address is
accessible in an equal amount of
time.
TEHN WHAT IS THE
DIFFERENCE B/W ROM & RAM
Read Only. It means You can read only, and most
of its part is permanent, or semi-permanent. i.e. it
cant be written in normal circumstances. It is
NONVOLATILE. Its not going to disappear.
Think about 1 & 0 s engrave into a tiny tiny tiny
stone put in your computer and you cant erase it.
The advantage of ROM is, when you turn it off ,
and you turn it back ON the memory is still there,
So the advantage of ROM is Nonvolatile, but
the disadvantage is you cant write under
normal circumstances
Whereas RAM is Volatile, you turned off
RAM, its gone, but the advantage is you can
Read and Write.
7. Lets see, how these are organized…
MemoryAddress
Register
8. T2T1
Word Line
Bit Lines
SRAM
READ
𝐐 =1 Q=0
BL BL=1 =1
Both BL and BL
are pre-charged to
logic 11 1
But here, you can spot the voltage
difference, that will result in
voltage drop across BL, that will
decrease the value of BL
This is how BL and BL
will be connected with
this sense amplifier
Since there is no voltage
difference, there wont be
any change in the value
of BL or 𝐐
0
Now here comes your sense
amplifier. Do u remember this??
Its a simple comparator. And its
output will be high (logic 1) only if
V+ > V_.
As we have previously discussed that BL >> BL,
it implies that V+ < V_. so we can anticipate the
output of the sense amplifier, and that will be 0,
hence we have read the content of this RAM.
12. Q=𝐐 =
Example of a CMOS Memory Cell
1 0
1
ON
1 OFF
0
OFF
0ON
Word Line
Vsupply
Ground
Bit Lines
T2T1
T3 T4
T6T5
BL BL
13. Word Line
Bit Lines
Example of a CMOS Memory Cell
T2T1
Vsupply
Ground
𝐐 Q
BL BL
T3 T4
T6T5
That’s why it is known as 6T SRAM
Cant we design this
with less number of
Transistor?
We can!! Lets see,
How?
14. Word Line
Bit Lines
T2T1
Vsupply
Ground
𝐐 Q
BL BL
T3 T4
T6T5
Lets try designing it
with the help of NMOS
only, so we have to
remove the PMOS, lets
do that.
R1 R2
This is known as 4T SRAM This circuit is also having the same
function, and will perfectly work as a
SRAM. Even with less number of
Transistor, and hence with comparatively
less space requirement. Then the
question is why we have studied 6T-SRAM
Now we will replace these transistor
with Resistor, that wont change the
operation of circuit and it will still
work as an inverter
The reason is, 6T SRAM is having less
Power Dissipation(PD), because of
CMOS, and this 4T SRAM has
comparatively greater PD, because of
the presence of Resisters.
In conclusion we can say, that we may use
both of them, depending on the
requirement. If in certain system we are
more concern about space, then Power
Dissipation, we will surely go for 4T, and
vice-versa
16. DRAMS
Word Line
Bit Line
BL
This capacitor will store the information
in the form of Electric Charge.
WRITE =1 Now there is no connection between BL
and capacitor, so the charge will be stored
in the capacitor, and will be considered as
logic 1. That’s how 1 is written in DRAM.
But, the charge stored in capacitor will
gradually leak out, so in order to retain
the content of DRAM we have to
periodically refresh them, that’s drives
its name as Dynamic RAM.
Apart from this disadvantage, the main
advantage of DRAM is its comparatively
small size, that makes it less expensive.
Similarly if BL is at logic zero, then the
capacitor wont get charged, and it will
also consider to be at logic zero. That's
how 0 is written in DRAM
17. Word Line
Bit Line
READ Bit Line
10
In actual practice, there are Millions and
Billions of these kind of DRAMs are arranged in
this way. In this arrangement as you can see, we
have divided this entire mesh by an array of
sense amplifiers. Now lets again focus on these
two DRAMS only.
Having understood the arrangement of bit
Lines, now we can extend this Bit Lines little
further considering they are connected with
other DRAMs, placed at different memory
location. Sense Amplifier Sense Amplifier
These Bit Lines are pre-charged, to the half
of the value of system voltage. Lets say they are
at 2.5V
2.5V 2.5V
2.5V 2.5V
Now if the capacitor is charged up, the charge
will move from the capacitor to bit line. That
will increase the potential at Bit Line a little bit.
Lets say by an amount of δ.
+ δ
This small difference between the values of Bit
Lines will be sensed by the Sense Amplifier, and
it will produce an output based on following
logic; if V+ > V_ output will be 1
And if V+ < V_ output will be 0
= 1
Now, in this case, the capacitor is not charged,
so charge will move from the bit line to the
capacitor, that will decrease the value of Bit
Line a little bit, let say by an amount of δ.
̶ δ
= 0
In last one important thing to observe is this
Read operation is destructive. i.e. the total
charged in both the cases has changed. This will
be cope up by that periodic refreshing process
explained earlier.
18. ROM
A read‐only memory (ROM) is essentially a memory device in which permanent binary
information is stored. The binary information must be specified by the designer and is then
embedded in the unit to form the required interconnection pattern. Once the pattern is
established, it stays within the unit even when power is turned off and on again.
19. k×2k
Decoder
.
.
.
k
Inputs
.
.
.
.
2k
Outputs
of
decoder
.
.
.
.
n outputs
2k×n
A block diagram of a ROM consisting of k
inputs and n outputs is shown in the inputs
provide the address for memory, and the
outputs give the data bits of the stored word
that is selected by the address.
A block diagram of a ROM consisting of k
inputs &n outputs
where the inputs provide the address for
memory, and the outputs give the data bits
of the stored word that is selected by the
address.
20. 3×8
A
B
C
A’B’C’
A’B’C
A’BC’
A’BC
AB’C’
AB’C
ABC’
ABC
U V W X Y Z
The internal binary storage of a ROM is
specified by a truth table that shows
the word content in each address. For
example, the content of a 8×6 ROM may
be specified with a truth table similar
to the one shown in following table
=0
=0
=0
1 0 1 0 0 1Now, according to the required Data
set what we have to store in the ROM,
we will make changes in the ROM. A
connection that we have made by a
cross, will represent 1 and absence of
connection represents 0.
=0
=0
=1
0 1 0 1 1 1
21. INPUTS
A B C
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
OUTPUTS
U V W X Y Z
1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
Combinational Circuit Implementation using ROM
Lets say we have got a combinational
circuit define by the following truth
table.
23. The procedure for fabricating a ROM requires that the customer fill out the truth table he or
she wishes the ROM to satisfy. The manufacturer makes the corresponding mask for the
paths to produce the 1’s and 0’s according to the customer’s truth table. This procedure is
costly because the vendor charges the customer a special fee for custom masking the
particular ROM
PROM
For small quantities, it is more economical to use a second type of ROM called
Programmable Read‐Only Memory, or PROM. When ordered, PROM
units contain all the fuses intact, giving all 1’s in the bits of the stored words. The fuses in the
PROM are blown by the application of a high‐voltage pulse to the device through a special
pin. A blown fuse defines a binary 0 state and an intact fuse gives a binary 1 state. This
procedure allows the user to program the PROM in the laboratory to achieve the desired
relationship between input addresses and stored words. Special instruments called PROM
programmers are available commercially to facilitate the procedure.
24. 3×8
A
B
C
A’B’C’
A’B’C
A’BC’
A’BC
AB’C’
AB’C
ABC’
ABC
U V W X Y ZU= A’B’C +A’BC’ +AB’C’ +AB’C +ABC
U= A’B’C’+A’B’C +A’BC’ +A’BC +AB’C’
+AB’C +ABC’ +ABC
When all the fuse are intact,
output U will be the sum of
all Minterms
Lets say, for any particular
function, we ant U to be
equals to this…
The easiest way to realize
this function is to remove
the minterms what we
don’t need, and that can be
simply achieve by blowing
the related fuses, by
following the methods
discussed earlier.
Fix AND
Array
Programmable OR
Array
25. EPROM:-Erasable, reprogrammable ROM
They may store information for long time but not for infinite time some
says for 100 years So they may be used in place of ROM.
In this we use a special type of transistor known as FGMOS (Floating-
Gate MOSFET)
The special characteristic of this transistor is that it may be used as a
normal transistor or as a disabled transistor that is always turned off.
The important advantage of EPROM chip is that their content can be
erased and reprogrammed
For erasing we have to erase the charges trapped in the transistor of
the memory cell; which is achieved by exposing it to the Ultraviolet
light. This is the reason of this transparent window.
26. EEPROM
A significant disadvantage of EPROMS is that a chip must be physically
removed from the circuit for reprogramming and that its entire
contents are erased by the ultraviolet light.
So an other ROM came into existence that can be both programmed
and erased electrically. Such chips are called EEPROM (Electrically
erasable PROM)
Moreover it is possible to erase the cell content selectively.
The only disadvantage of EEPROM is that different voltages are needed
for erasing, writing and reading the stored data.
27. Combinational PLDs
The PROM is a
combinational
programmable logic
device (PLD)—an
integrated circuit with
programmable gates
divided into an AND
array and an OR array to
provide an AND–OR
sum‐of‐product
implementation. There
are three major types of
combinational PLDs,
differing in the
placement of the
programmable
connections in the AND–
OR array.
Programmable
AND Array
Fixed OR Array
Fix AND Array
(Decoder)
Programmable OR
Array
Programmable
AND Array
Programmable OR
Array
Inputs outputs
Inputs outputs
Inputs outputs
Programmable read-only memory (PROM)
Programmable array logic (PAL)
Programmable logic array (PLA)
28. PLA
The PLA is similar in concept to the PROM, except that the PLA does not provide
full decoding of the variables and does not generate all the minterms. The decoder
is replaced by an array of AND gates that can be programmed to generate any
product term of the input variables. The product terms are then connected to OR
gates to provide the sum of products for the required Boolean functions.
29. A B C
A B CA’ B’ C’
These Buffer-Inverter combinations
will provide both true and
complemented outputs
Each input and its complement are
connected to the inputs of each
AND gate, with the help of these we
can generate any product term
The outputs of the AND
gates are connected to the inputs of
each OR gate
The output of the OR gate goes to an
XOR gate, where the other input can be
programmed to receive a signal equal to
either logic 1 or logic 0. The output is
inverted when the XOR input is
connected to 1 (since x ⊕ 1 = x’ ). The
output does not change when the XOR
input is connected to 0 (since x ⊕ 0 = x)
0
1
30. Implementation using PLA
F1 = AB’ + AC + A’BC’
F2 = (AC + BC)’
Lets say, we want to implement this
function using PLA
First we have to define the size of PLA
That can be done by considering the following
Number of inputs variables = Total number of Buffer-inverter
Total number of distinct product terms= Number of AND gate
Total number of Outputs(functions)= Number of OR gates.
So in this case
Number of inputs variables = Total number of Buffer-inverter = 3
Total number of distinct product terms= Number of AND gate = 4
Total number of Outputs(functions)= Number of OR gates = 2
31. PLA Programming Table
Following Programming table may also be drawn for these functions
F1 = AB’ + AC + A’BC’
F2 = (AC + BC)’
Outputs
Inputs (T) (C)
Product
Terms
A B C F1 F2
AB’ 1 1 0 — 1 —
AC 2 1 — 1 1 1
BC 3 0 1 1 — 1
A’BC’ 4 0 1 0 1 —
T (true) output dictates that the other
input of the corresponding XOR gate be
connected to 0, and a C (complement)
specifies a connection to 1
32. A B C
A B CA’ B’ C’
0
1
×
Now, we will see the implementation
×
× ×
× ×
× × ×
×AB’
AC
BC
A’BC’
×
× ×
×
×
×
F1
F2
33. Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
The PAL is a programmable logic device with a fixed OR array and a programmable
AND array. Because only the AND gates are programmable, the PAL is easier to
program than, but is not as flexible as, the PLA.
34. A B C
A B CA’ B’ C’
Now lets say we have to realize this function
F1 = AB’ + AC + A’BC’
F2 = AC + BC
× ×
× ×
× ××
AB’
AC
A’BC’
F1
× ×
× ×
AC
BC
×
×
F2
Each input has a buffer–
inverter gate, and each
output is generated by a
fixed OR gate.
There are three sections in
the unit, each composed of
an AND–OR array that is
three wide, the term used to
indicate that there are three
programmable AND gates
in each section and one
fixed OR gate
Implementation using PAL
“Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) studies artificial systems that take inspiration from the behavior of real ant colonies and which are used to solve discrete optimization problems.”