This document summarizes image classification techniques in remote sensing. It discusses two common classification methods: K-means clustering and Support Vector Machines (SVM). K-means clustering assigns pixels to the nearest cluster mean without direction from the analyst. SVM is a supervised technique that determines optimal boundaries between classes to maximize separation. The document provides examples of how each technique works and discusses their advantages and limitations for land cover mapping from remote sensing imagery.
In the context of remote sensing, change detection refers to the process of identifying differences in the state of land features by observing them at different times. This process can be accomplished either manually (i.e., by hand) or with the aid of remote sensing software. Manual interpretation of change from satellite images or aerial photos involves an observer or analyst defining areas of interest and comparing them between images from two dates. This may be accomplished either on-screen (such as in a GIS) or on paper. When analyzing aerial photographs, a stereoscope which allows for two spatially-overlapping photos to be displayed in 3D, can aid photo interpretation. Manual image interpretation works well when assessing change between discrete classes (forest openings, land use and land cover maps) or when changes are large (e.g., heavy mechanized maneuver damage, engineering training impacts). Manual image interpretation is also an option when trying to determine change using images or photos from different sources (comparing historic aerial photographs to current satellite imagery).
Automated methods of remote sensing change detection usually are of two forms: post-classification change detection and image differencing using band ratios. In post-classification change detection, the images from each time period are classified using the same classification scheme into a number of discrete categories like land cover types. The two (or more) classifications are compared and the area that is classified the same or different is tallied. With image differencing, a band ratio such as NDVI is constructed from each input image, and the difference is taken between the band ratios of different times. In the case of differencing NDVI images, positive output values may indicate an increase in vegetation, negative values a decrease in vegetation, and values near zero no change. With either post-classification or image differencing change detection, it is necessary to specify a threshold below which differences between the two images is considered to be non-significant. The specification of thresholds is critical to the results of change detection analysis and usually must be found through an iterative process.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
it is highly useful for geography students in the field of remote sensing and it is in very simple and explanatory for the purpose of simplification with relevant images in this ppt.
In the context of remote sensing, change detection refers to the process of identifying differences in the state of land features by observing them at different times. This process can be accomplished either manually (i.e., by hand) or with the aid of remote sensing software. Manual interpretation of change from satellite images or aerial photos involves an observer or analyst defining areas of interest and comparing them between images from two dates. This may be accomplished either on-screen (such as in a GIS) or on paper. When analyzing aerial photographs, a stereoscope which allows for two spatially-overlapping photos to be displayed in 3D, can aid photo interpretation. Manual image interpretation works well when assessing change between discrete classes (forest openings, land use and land cover maps) or when changes are large (e.g., heavy mechanized maneuver damage, engineering training impacts). Manual image interpretation is also an option when trying to determine change using images or photos from different sources (comparing historic aerial photographs to current satellite imagery).
Automated methods of remote sensing change detection usually are of two forms: post-classification change detection and image differencing using band ratios. In post-classification change detection, the images from each time period are classified using the same classification scheme into a number of discrete categories like land cover types. The two (or more) classifications are compared and the area that is classified the same or different is tallied. With image differencing, a band ratio such as NDVI is constructed from each input image, and the difference is taken between the band ratios of different times. In the case of differencing NDVI images, positive output values may indicate an increase in vegetation, negative values a decrease in vegetation, and values near zero no change. With either post-classification or image differencing change detection, it is necessary to specify a threshold below which differences between the two images is considered to be non-significant. The specification of thresholds is critical to the results of change detection analysis and usually must be found through an iterative process.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
it is highly useful for geography students in the field of remote sensing and it is in very simple and explanatory for the purpose of simplification with relevant images in this ppt.
this presentation briefly describes the digital image processing and its various procedures and techniques which include image correction or rectification with remote sensing data/ images. it also contains various image classification techniques.
The advantage of digital imagery is that it allows us to manipulate the digital pixel values in the image. Even after the radiometric corrections image may still not be optimized for visual interpretation. An image 'enhancement' is basically anything that makes it easier or better to visually interpret. An enhancement is performed for a specific application as well. This enhancement may be inappropriate for another purpose, which would demand a different type of enhancement.
Filtering is used to enhance the appearance of an image. Spatial filters are designed to highlight or suppress specific features in an image based on their spatial frequency. ‘Rough’ textured areas of an image, where the changes in tone are abrupt, have high spatial frequencies, while ‘smooth’ areas with little variation have low spatial frequencies. A common filtering procedure involves moving a ‘matrix' of a few pixels in dimension (ie. 3x3, 5x5, etc.) over each pixel in the image, using mathematical calculation and replacing the central pixel with the new value.
A low-pass filter is designed to emphasize larger, homogeneous areas of similar tone and reduce the smaller detail in an image. Thus, low-pass filters generally serve to smooth the appearance of an image. In some cases, like 'low-pass filtering', the enhanced image can actually look worse than the original, but such an enhancement was likely performed to help the interpreter see low spatial frequency features among the usual high frequency clutter found in an image. High-pass filters do the opposite and serve to sharpen the appearance of fine detail in an image. Directional, or edge detection filters are designed to highlight linear features, such as roads or field boundaries. These filters can also be designed to enhance features which are oriented in specific directions.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Radiometric corrections include correcting the data for sensor irregularities and unwanted sensor or atmospheric noise, and converting the data so they accurately represent the reflected or emitted radiation measured by the sensor.
The objective of image classification is to classify each pixel into only one class (crisp or hard classification) or to associate the pixel with many classes (fuzzy or soft classification). The classification techniques may be categorized either on the basis of training process (supervised and unsupervised) or on the basis of theoretical model (parametric and non-parametric).
Unsupervised classification is where the groupings of pixels with common characteristics are based on the software analysis of an image without the user providing sample classes. The computer uses techniques to determine which pixels are related and groups them into classes. The user can specify which algorism the software will use and the desired number of output classes but otherwise does not aid in the classification process. However, the user must have knowledge of the area being classified when the groupings of pixels with common characteristics produced by the computer have to be related to actual features on the ground (such as waterbodies, developed areas, forests, etc.).
Supervised classification is based on the idea that a user can select sample pixels in an image that are representative of specific classes and then direct the image processing software to use these training sites as references for the classification of all other pixels in the image. Input classes are selected based on the knowledge of the user. The user also sets the bounds for how similar other pixels must be to group them together. These bounds are often set based on the spectral characteristics of the input classes (AOI), plus or minus a certain increment (often based on “brightness” or strength of reflection in specific spectral bands). The user also designates the number of classes that the image is classified into.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Gis Geographical Information System FundamentalsUroosa Samman
Gis, Geographical Information System Fundamentals. This presentation includes a complete detail of GIS and GIS Softwares. It will help students of GIS and Environmental Science.
Unsupervised Classification of Images: A ReviewCSCJournals
Unsupervised image classification is the process by which each image in a dataset is identified to be a member of one of the inherent categories present in the image collection without the use of labelled training samples. Unsupervised categorisation of images relies on unsupervised machine learning algorithms for its implementation. This paper identifies clustering algorithms and dimension reduction algorithms as the two main classes of unsupervised machine learning algorithms needed in unsupervised image categorisation, and then reviews how these algorithms are used in some notable implementation of unsupervised image classification algorithms.
this presentation briefly describes the digital image processing and its various procedures and techniques which include image correction or rectification with remote sensing data/ images. it also contains various image classification techniques.
The advantage of digital imagery is that it allows us to manipulate the digital pixel values in the image. Even after the radiometric corrections image may still not be optimized for visual interpretation. An image 'enhancement' is basically anything that makes it easier or better to visually interpret. An enhancement is performed for a specific application as well. This enhancement may be inappropriate for another purpose, which would demand a different type of enhancement.
Filtering is used to enhance the appearance of an image. Spatial filters are designed to highlight or suppress specific features in an image based on their spatial frequency. ‘Rough’ textured areas of an image, where the changes in tone are abrupt, have high spatial frequencies, while ‘smooth’ areas with little variation have low spatial frequencies. A common filtering procedure involves moving a ‘matrix' of a few pixels in dimension (ie. 3x3, 5x5, etc.) over each pixel in the image, using mathematical calculation and replacing the central pixel with the new value.
A low-pass filter is designed to emphasize larger, homogeneous areas of similar tone and reduce the smaller detail in an image. Thus, low-pass filters generally serve to smooth the appearance of an image. In some cases, like 'low-pass filtering', the enhanced image can actually look worse than the original, but such an enhancement was likely performed to help the interpreter see low spatial frequency features among the usual high frequency clutter found in an image. High-pass filters do the opposite and serve to sharpen the appearance of fine detail in an image. Directional, or edge detection filters are designed to highlight linear features, such as roads or field boundaries. These filters can also be designed to enhance features which are oriented in specific directions.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Radiometric corrections include correcting the data for sensor irregularities and unwanted sensor or atmospheric noise, and converting the data so they accurately represent the reflected or emitted radiation measured by the sensor.
The objective of image classification is to classify each pixel into only one class (crisp or hard classification) or to associate the pixel with many classes (fuzzy or soft classification). The classification techniques may be categorized either on the basis of training process (supervised and unsupervised) or on the basis of theoretical model (parametric and non-parametric).
Unsupervised classification is where the groupings of pixels with common characteristics are based on the software analysis of an image without the user providing sample classes. The computer uses techniques to determine which pixels are related and groups them into classes. The user can specify which algorism the software will use and the desired number of output classes but otherwise does not aid in the classification process. However, the user must have knowledge of the area being classified when the groupings of pixels with common characteristics produced by the computer have to be related to actual features on the ground (such as waterbodies, developed areas, forests, etc.).
Supervised classification is based on the idea that a user can select sample pixels in an image that are representative of specific classes and then direct the image processing software to use these training sites as references for the classification of all other pixels in the image. Input classes are selected based on the knowledge of the user. The user also sets the bounds for how similar other pixels must be to group them together. These bounds are often set based on the spectral characteristics of the input classes (AOI), plus or minus a certain increment (often based on “brightness” or strength of reflection in specific spectral bands). The user also designates the number of classes that the image is classified into.
THIS PRESENTATION IS TO HELP YOU PERFORM THE TASK STEP BY STEP.
Gis Geographical Information System FundamentalsUroosa Samman
Gis, Geographical Information System Fundamentals. This presentation includes a complete detail of GIS and GIS Softwares. It will help students of GIS and Environmental Science.
Unsupervised Classification of Images: A ReviewCSCJournals
Unsupervised image classification is the process by which each image in a dataset is identified to be a member of one of the inherent categories present in the image collection without the use of labelled training samples. Unsupervised categorisation of images relies on unsupervised machine learning algorithms for its implementation. This paper identifies clustering algorithms and dimension reduction algorithms as the two main classes of unsupervised machine learning algorithms needed in unsupervised image categorisation, and then reviews how these algorithms are used in some notable implementation of unsupervised image classification algorithms.
This presentation will give a simple overview of image classification technique using difference type software focusing on object-based image classification and segmentation.
Object Classification of Satellite Images Using Cluster Repulsion Based Kerne...IOSR Journals
Abstract: We investigated the Classification of satellite images and multispectral remote sensing data .we
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classifying the multispectral satellite images using Support Vector Machine (SVM) into road area, building area
and green area. We carried out classification in three modules namely (a) Preprocessing using Gaussian
filtering and conversion from conversion of RGB to Lab color space image (b) object segmentation using
proposed Cluster repulsion based kernel Fuzzy C- Means (FCM) and (c) classification using one-to-many SVM
classifier. The goal of this research is to provide the efficiency in classification of satellite images using the
object-based image analysis. The proposed work is evaluated using the satellite images and the accuracy of the
proposed work is compared to FCM based classification. The results showed that the proposed technique has
achieved better results reaching an accuracy of 79%, 84%, 81% and 97.9% for road, tree, building and vehicle
classification respectively.
Keywords:-Satellite image, FCM Clustering, Classification, SVM classifier.
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Classification of Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) data from satellite images is extremely remarkable to design the thematic maps for analysis of natural resources like Forest, Agriculture, Water bodies, urban areas etc. The process of Satellite Image Classification involves grouping the pixel values into significant categories and estimating areas by counting each category pixels. Manual classification by visual interpretation technique is accurate but time consuming and requires field experts. To overcome these difficulties, the present research work investigated efficient and effective automation of satellite image classification. Automated classification approaches are broadly classified in to i) Supervised Classification ii) Unsupervised Classification iii) Object Based Classification. This paper presents classification capabilities of K-Means, Parallel Pipe and Maximum Likelihood classifiers to classify multispectral spatial data (LISS-4). Using statistical inference, classified results are validated with reference data collected from field experts. Among three, Maximum Likelihood classifier (MLC) gained a significant credit in terms of getting maximum Overall accuracy and Kappa Factor.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) ijceronline
nternational Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
he data obtained from remote sensing satellites fu
rnish information about the land at varying resolut
ions
and has been widely used for change detection studi
es. There exist a huge number of change detection
methodologies and techniques with the continual eme
rgence of new ones. This paper provides a review of
pixel based and object-based change detection techn
iques in conjunction with the comparison of their
merits and limitations. The advent of very-high-res
olution remotely sensed images, exponentially incre
ased
image data volume and multiple sensors demand the p
otential use of data mining techniques in tandem
with object-based methods for change detection
REGION CLASSIFICATION AND CHANGE DETECTION USING LANSAT-8 IMAGESADEIJ Journal
The change detection in remote sensing images remains an important and open problem for damage assessment. A new change detection method for LANSAT-8 images based on homogeneous pixel transformation (HPT) is proposed. Homogeneous Pixel Transformation transfers one image from its original feature space (e.g., gray space) to another feature space (e.g., spectral space) in pixel-level to make the pre-event images and post-event images to be represented in a common space or projection space for the convenience of change detection. HPT consists of two operations, i.e., forward transformation and backward transformation. In the forward transformation, each pixel of pre-event image in the first feature space is taken and will estimate its mapping pixel in the second space corresponding to post-event image based on the known unchanged pixels. A multi-value estimation method with the noise tolerance is produced to determine the mapping pixel using K-nearest neighbours technique. Once the mapping pixels of pre-event image are identified, the difference values between the mapping image and the post-event image can be directly generated. Then the similar work is done for backward transformation to combine the post-event image with the first space, and one more difference value for each pixel will be generated. Then, the two difference values are taken and combined to improve the robustness of detection with respect to the noise and heterogeneousness of images. (FRFCM) Fast and Robust Fuzzy C-means clustering algorithm is employed to divide the integrated difference values into two clusters- changed pixels and unchanged pixels. This detection results may contain few noisy regions as small error detections, and a spatial-neighbor based noise filter is developed to reduce the false alarms and missing detections. The experiments for change detection with real images of LANSAT-8 in Tuticorin between 2013-2019 are given to validate the percentage of the changed regions in the proposed method.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This project is to retrieve the similar geographic images from the dataset based on the features extracted.
Retrieval is the process of collecting the relevant images from the dataset which contains more number of
images. Initially the preprocessing step is performed in order to remove noise occurred in input image with
the help of Gaussian filter. As the second step, Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM), Scale Invariant
Feature Transform (SIFT), and Moment Invariant Feature algorithms are implemented to extract the
features from the images. After this process, the relevant geographic images are retrieved from the dataset
by using Euclidean distance. In this, the dataset consists of totally 40 images. From that the images which
are all related to the input image are retrieved by using Euclidean distance. The approach of SIFT is to
perform reliable recognition, it is important that the feature extracted from the training image be
detectable even under changes in image scale, noise and illumination. The GLCM calculates how often a
pixel with gray level value occurs. While the focus is on image retrieval, our project is effectively used in
the applications such as detection and classification.
A Review on Image Segmentation using Clustering and Swarm Optimization Techni...IJSRD
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Image classification in remote sensing
1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.10, 2013
www.iiste.org
Image Classification in Remote Sensing
Jwan Al-doski*, Shattri B. Mansor1 and Helmi Zulhaidi Mohd Shafri
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
* E-mail of the corresponding author: Jwan-83@hotmail.com
Abstract
One of the most important functions of remote sensing data is the production of Land Use and Land Cover maps
and thus can be managed through a process called image classification. This paper looks into the following
components related to the image classification process and procedures and image classification techniques and
explains two common techniques K-means Classifier and Support Vector Machine (SVM).
Keywords: Remote Sensing, Image Classification, K-means Classifier, Support Vector Machine
1. Image Classification
Based on the idea that different feature types on the earth's surface have a different spectral reflectance and
remittance properties, their recognition is carried out through the classification process. In a broad sense, image
classification is defined as the process of categorizing all pixels in an image or raw remotely sensed satellite data
to obtain a given set of labels or land cover themes (Lillesand, Keifer 1994). As can see in figure1.
SPOT multispectral image of the test area
Thematic map derived from the SPOT image using an unsupervised classification algorithm.
Figure1. Example of Image Classification
141
2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.10, 2013
www.iiste.org
2. Image Classification Procedures
General image classification procedures include:
• Design image classification scheme: they are usually information classes such as urban, agriculture,
forest areas, etc. Conduct field surveys and collect ground information and other ancillary data of the
study area.
• Preprocessing of the image, including radiometric, atmospheric, geometric and topographic corrections,
image enhancement, and initial image clustering.
• Select representative areas of the image and analyze the initial clustering results or generate training
signatures.
• Image classification algorithms running.
• Post-processing: complete geometric correction & filtering and classification decorating.
• Accuracy assessment: compare classification results with field studies.
(Gong and Howarth 1990):
3. Image Classification Techniques
There are various classification approaches that have been developed and widely used to produce land cover
maps (Aplin, Atkinson 2004). They range in logic, from supervised to unsupervised; parametric to nonparametric to non-metric, or hard and soft (fuzzy) classification, or per-pixel, sub-pixel, and prefield (Keuchel et
al. 2003a, Jensen 2005) as can be seen from the brief descriptions of these categories in Table 1. However, there
are two broad types of classification procedure and each finds application in the processing of remote sensing
images: one is referred to as supervised classification and the other one is unsupervised classification. These can
be used as alternative approaches, but are often combined into hybrid methodologies using more than one
method (Richards, Jia 2006).
Table1.Summary of Remote Sensing Classification Techniques
Methods
Examples
Characteristics
Maximum Likelihood classification Assumptions: Data area normally distributed Prior
Parametric
and Unsupervised classification Knowledge of class density functions
etc.
Nearest-neighbor
classification, No prior assumptions are made
Non-Parametric
Fuzzy classification , Neural
networks and
support Vector
machines etc.
Rule-based
Decision
tree Can operate on both real-valued data and nominal
Non-metric
classification
scaled data statistical analysis
Maximum Likelihood, Minimum Analyst Identifies training sites to represent in
Supervised
Distance , and Parallelepiped classes and each pixel is classified based on
classification etc.
statistical analysis
Unsupervised
ISODATA and K-means etc.
Hard (parametric)
Supervised and
Unsupervised
classifications
Fuzzy Set Classification logic
Soft
(nonParametric)
Pre-Pixel
Object-oriented
Prior ground information not known. Pixels with
similar spectral characteristics are grouped
according to specific statistical criteria
Classification using discrete categories
Considers the heterogeneous nature of real world
Each pixel is assigned a proportion of the in land
cover type found within the pixel
Classification of the image pixel by pixel
Image regenerated
into homogenous objects
Classification preformed on each object and pixel
Includes expert systems and artificial intelligence
Hybrid
Approaches
(Source Jensen, 2005: pp337-338)
Unsupervised image classification is a method in which the image interpreting software separates a large number
of unknown pixels in an image based on their reflectance values into classes or clusters with no direction from
the analyst (Tou, Gonzalez 1974). There are two most frequent clustering methods used for unsupervised
classification: K-means and Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique (ISODATA). These two methods
rely purely on spectrally pixel-based statistics and incorporate no prior knowledge of the characteristics of the
themes being studied. On the other hand, supervised classification is a method in which the analyst defines small
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areas called training sites on the image, which contain the predictor variables measured in each sampling unit,
and assigns prior classes to the sampling uni (Černá, Chytrý 2005). The delineation of training areas
units
.
representative of a cover type is most effective when an image analyst has knowledge of the geography of a
region and experience with the spectral properties of t cover classes (Skidmore 1989).
the
The following diagrams show the major steps in the two common types of image classification
classification:
Unsupervised
Supervised
The supervised technique has some advantage over the unsupervised one. In the supervised approach, useful
unsupervised
information categories are distinct first, and then their spectral separability is examined while in the
unsupervised approach, the computer determines spectrally separable class, and then defines their inform
information
value (Lillesand, Keifer 1994). Besides, unsupervised classification is easy to apply, does not require analyst
.
analystspecified training data and is widely available in image processing and statistical software p
packages; moreover it
automatically converts raw image data into useful information so long as there is higher classification accuracy
(Langley, Cheshire & Humes 2001), but one disadvantage of this classification is that the classification process
has to be repeated if new data (samples) are added.
Nevertheless; there are many limitations of both major classification methods (supervised and unsupervised) that
were realized by Castellana, d’Addabbo & Pasquariello (2
(2007) during independent utility and this led them to
)
develop a new classification approach called “hybrid classification method”. On the other hand, when using new
generation images, characterized by a higher spatial and spectral resolution, it is still d
difficult to obtain
satisfactory results by using supervised and unsupervised methods alone (Lewiński, Zaremski 2004) therefore,
scientists have made great effor to develop advanced classification procedures which has resulted in the
Automated Classification Approach used by (Ratanopad, Kainz 2006), Rx Classification Method (Zhang et al.
,
2007), Object-based Classification (Gamanya, De Maeyer & De Dapper 2009), SVM (Walter 2004),
based
,
Standardized Object Oriented Automatic Classification (SOOAC) method based on fuzzy Logic, Knowledge
Knowledgebased Stratified Classification, Artificial Neural Networks(ANN) (Chen et al. 2002), Decision Tree Classification
,
Method (DT) (Su et al. 2011), Bayesian and Hybrid Classifier (Pradhan, Ghose & Jeyaram 2010)
,
2010).
3.1 K-means Classifier
In this approach, classes are determined statistically by assigning pixels to the nearest cluster mean based on all
available bands. In K-Means, a sequence of iteration starts with a initial set C
Means,
an
(Tou, Gonzalez 1974) At each
1974).
iteration t all c € C pixels are assigned to one of the clusters S
as defined by the nearest neighbor principle. A
new center C
For a cluster is computed as follows:
1
However, the result of the K-Means clustering or the output of this technique could be influenced by the number
Means
of cluster centers specified, the choice of the initial cluster center, the sampling nature, the geometrical properties
cluster
of the data, and clustering parameters (Vanderzee, Ehrlich 1995). It is relatively straightforward and has
.
considerable intuitive appeal.
3.2 Support Vector Machine (SVM)
Recently, Support Vector Machine (SVM) classification algorithm has been used to classify imagery obtained
from remote-sensing satellites (Keuchel et al. 2003b). SVM, the work of Vapnik and colleagues in the 1990’s,
2003b).
was previously utilized in a remote sensing context by Gualtieri and Cromp in 1998 and Pal and Mather, 2005.
This classification algorithm had been shown to be effective for face recognition in photos, handwriting and
object recognition before it was adopted for use in remote sensing (Pal, Mather 2005, Hermes et al. 1999) and
fore
has proved popular for hyperspectral remote
remote-sensing data (Camps-Valls et al. 2004, Melgani, Bruzzone 2004,
Valls
Fauvel, Chanussot & Benediktsson 2006). Besides these successful applications of hyperspectral data, SVM is
2006).
being used for various data types such as L
Landsat multispectral data. It is a non-parametric classifier that
parametric
differentiates and divides the classes by determining the boundaries in feature space and maximizes the margin
between the classes (Keuchel et al. 200 . The surface is often called the optimal hyper plane, and the data
2003b).
points closest to the hyper plane are called support vectors. Classes are not separated by statistical learning
theory means as in the maximum likelihood classifier, but by geometric criteria (Fauvel, Chanussot &
criteria
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Benediktsson 2006).
The support vectors consider the critical elements of the training set. Implementation of SVM by the ENVI 4.8
software uses the pairwise classification strategy for multiclass classification. SVM classification output is the
decision values of each pixel for each class, which are used for probability estimates. The ENVI4.8 software
performs classification by selecting the highest probability. An optional threshold allows reporting pixels with all
probability values less than the threshold as unclassified. SVM includes a penalty parameter that allows a certain
degree of misclassification, which is particularly important for non-separable training sets. The penalty
parameter controls the tradeoff between allowing training errors and forcing rigid margins. For example, assume
that two classes are spectrally separable in feature space. If the two classes are separated by a line drawn in the
feature space, to separate these two classes, the space between the two classes identifying a central hyperplane
should be maximized (Pal, Mather 2005). To identify the hyperplane, the central distance between the closest
points of each of the two classes is measured. These points are referred to as support vectors (Pal, Mather 2005).
An SVM, simply demonstrated, is a binary example in a two dimensional feature space, as shown in Figure 2.
It is assumed that N training samples exist in the feature space with corresponding labels yi= +1 or yj= -1
respectively (Fauvel, Chanussot & Benediktsson 2006). To define the optimal hyperplane, w represents the
vector normal to the hyperplane and b represents the bias so the hyperplane and is defined as:
∗ +
0
Where
x= a point lying on the hyperplane
w = is normal to the hyperplane
b = bias
|!|
= the perpendicular distance from the hyperplane to the origin with the Euclidean norm of w
"#"
(Foody, Mathur 2004)
For any training pixel x, the distance from the hyperplane can be calculated by:
f x
w∗x+b
For a training pixel x to be classified in either class, it must satisfy one of the two following conditions:
Yi (w. X i+ b) ≥+1 or Yi (w .X i+b) -1
Linearly separable data are ideal but rarely occur in a real world data set. For non-linearly separable, there is a
need to introduce lack variables ξ so that misclassified pixels transferred back to their original class in feature
space (Fauvel, Chanussot & Benediktsson 2006). Therefore the conditions are:
Yi (w. Xi +b) >1 –
≥0
or Yi (w. Xi +b) <-1Final optimization of the margin is defined as:
" ",
()* +
+
2
≥0
.
/
0
Where; C represents the penalty parameter (Fauvel et al., 2006).
(Adapted from Fauvel, Chanussot & Benediktsson 2006)
Figure2.Example of a Non-Linearly Separable Case by SVM
This penalty parameter entered by the analyst in the ENVI 4.8 software, allows for a certain level of
misclassifications. Larger assigned C value assigned means higher penalty for misclassified pixels (Pal, Mather
2005). Initially, SVM was a binary classification but a multiclass classification problem can be analyzed in order
to examine a combination of several binary classifications, or basically, each pair of classes is measured
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separately (Pal & Mather, 2005; ITT Visual Information Solutions, 2008b) and others indicated that this strategy
gave the optimum results in the case of a multi-class scenario (Pal, Mather 2005, Melgani, Bruzzone 2004).
In fact, Mprovidesand Bruzzone (2004) state that SVMs provides higher accuracy than traditional methods such
as the MLC, a theory that was tested by Melgani and Bruzzone (2004) for land cover classification mapping.
Likewise, in remote-sensing, it is not common to create linearly separable sets of training classes, but by using
kernels, nonlinear SVMs can be developed (Fauvel, Chanussot & Benediktsson 2006). Kernel methods can
generalize remote sensing data through sorting and projection of data into a higher dimension (Fauvel,
Chanussot & Benediktsson 2006). There are several kernels to choose from. The ENVI 4.8 software provides
four different types: linear, polynomial, sigmoid, and radial basis function (RBF). This study chose RBF as it
provides optimum results and has been proven to be the most popular from the literature (Pal, Mather 2005,
Hermes et al. 1999, Melgani, Bruzzone 2004, Fauvel, Chanussot & Benediktsson 2006). The RBF kernel is
defined as follows:
,
,
2 3 4−67 − 7 8
In which the gamma γ parameter is entered by the analyst and controls the width of the kernel (Foody, Mathur
2004). In order to use the RBF kernel in the ENVI 4.8 software, the gamma γ and C parameters need to be
wisely selected to avoid the SVM over fitting the training data, a common result of using high values for the two
parameters (Foody, Mathur 2004). There is little information in the literature on ways to identify these
parameters; as such, there is a necessity to resort to trial and error to select the optimal values for γ and C (Pal,
Mather 2005).
4. Over View of Image classification
Until today, there is still need to produce regional land use land cover maps for the variety of purposes of
government, public, private, and national security applications besides to support regional landscape planning
and resource management (Aplin, Atkinson 2004, Jensen 2005). Many new classifications have been introduced
and have become more popular compared to supervised classification and unsupervised classification (traditional
classification algorithms) for land use and land cover mapping , change detection and improve the accuracy of
maps and classified images. Dewan, Yamaguchi (2009) used the (ISODATA) clustering algorithm with the
maximum likelihood method to produce classification maps as well as the same classification algorithms used by
Binh et al. ( 2005) to create land cover maps and detect land cover changes in Vietnam. Müllerová in (2005)
utilized (ISODATA) clustering algorithm, the Parallelepiped and Maximum Likelihood classification to land
cover mapping.
For a particular study, it is often difficult to identify the best classifier due to the lack of a guideline for selection
and the availability of suitable classification algorithms to hand. With the availability of various classification
methods, the popular approach is a comparative analysis to try and decide what is best for a specific dataset.
Moreover, the combination of different classification approaches has shown to be helpful for the improvement of
classification accuracy. Many of classification algorithms are compared such as the study conducted by Guo et al.
(2008), in which four broad classification methods were employed, which are Maximum Likelihood
Classification (MLC), Self-Organized Neural Network (SONN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Decision
Tree Classification (DTC). In conclusion, DTC determined as the best and MLC as one of the classical methods
as it is more stable than the other three methods. While in another study conducted by (Pal, Mather 2005)Pal and
Mather (2005), there was a comparison of Support Vector Machines (SVM), Maximum Likelihood, and Neural
Network (ANN) classifiers to identify land cover types using Landsat 7 ETM+ and hyper spectral data. Both
Neural Network (ANN) and SVM classifiers are dependent on user-defined parameters to achieve proper
functionality. Results for the classifications showed SVM produced the most accurate results for both types of
data.
In a another study presented by Foody and Mathur (2004), SVM was tested against other classifiers, Decision
Trees and Neural Network data in an agricultural area in England to produce land use / land cover maps and
determine the highest overall accuracy. The SVM classification resulted in 93.8% accuracy despite the ability of
the SVM to function with minimum training data, training set size and overall accuracy are positively related
(Foody, Mathur 2004). The classification process and results are influenced by a variety of factors, including
availability of remotely sensed data, landscape complexity, image band selection, the classification algorithm
used, analyst’s knowledge about the study area, and analyst’s experience with the classifiers used
Due to lack of reference and raw data in order to produce high accuracy classified images and maps, some
researchers tried to combine most of the classification methods together as Hybrid classification. Hybrid
classification takes advantage of both the supervised classification and unsupervised classification. In this
method, multi-spectral images, firstly, an unsupervised one is preformed, then the result is interpreted using
ground truth knowledge and, finally the original images are reclassified using a supervised classification with the
aid of the statistics of the unsupervised classification as training knowledge. For example, Zaki, Abotalib Zaki
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(2011) have obtained high results by using hybrid classification in a combination of unsupervised classifications
(ISODATA) and Maximum likelihood as supervised to produce land cover maps by using multi-temporal
Landsat images (TM) in Northeast Cairo, Egypt. Then, the post classification change detection technique and
field investigation were applied and this method has proved beneficial for understanding human activity impacts
on the urban environment. In a similar study, Alphan, Doygun and Unlukaplan (2009) used the same hybrid
combination of multi-temporal Landsat and ASTER imagery to assess land cover (LC) changes in Turkey. Both
studies concluded that this combination was useful to increase classification accuracy.
5. Conclusion
One of the most important uses of remote sensing is the production of Land Use / Land Cover maps and thus can
be done through a process called “Image Classification”. Image Classification had made great progress over the
past decades in the following four areas: (1) producing land cover map at regional and global scale; (2)
development and use of advanced classification algorithms, such as subpixel, pre-field, and knowledge-based
classification algorithms; (3) use of multiple remote-sensing features, including spectral, spatial, multitemporal,
and Multisensor information; and (4) incorporation of ancillary data into classification procedures, including
such data as topography, soil, road, and census data. Accuracy assessment is an integral part in an image
classification procedure.The success of an image classification in remote sensing depends on many factors, the
availability of high-quality remotely sensed imagery and ancillary data, the design of a proper classification
procedure, and the analyst’s skills and experiences.
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