This document discusses methods for determining characteristics like age, sex, and race from skeletal remains. It provides details on assessing these factors from various bones and regions of the skeleton. For age, features of the mandible and spinal column are described at different life stages. Sex determination examines differences in the pelvis, skull, long bones, and other areas between males and females. Metrics like cephalic, nasal, and sacral indices are also provided to help assess race from skull and bone measurements.

1. Identification
from skeletal
remains

2.  Age
 Sex
 Race
 Stature

3. Race
 Race can be determine from the
examination of :
1. Skull
2. Mandible
3. Teeth
4. Limb bones.

4. Skull
Certain differences exist between
 Negroid (Black )
 Caucasoid ( Europeans ).
 Mongoloid ( Native Americans,
Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, South
east Asians )

5. Race can be determine by:
1. Cephalic index.
( breadth index ).
2. Height index.
3. Nasal index.

6. Cephalic index
 The cephalic index is calculated as
maximum breadth divided by
maximum length of the skull
multiplied by 100.

7.  Breadth is measured above the
mastoid process.
 Length is measured between the
glabella and the occipital protrobrance
with caliper.

8. Type of skull Cephalic index Race
Dolico cephalic
( long headed )
70 -74.9 Aryans, Black .
Mesati
cephalic (
medium headed
)
75 – 79.9 Europeans,
Brachy
cephalic (
round headed)
80 or > Mongolians

9. Height index
 The height index is calculated as
height of the skull divided by length
of the skull, multiplied by 100.

10. Nasal index
 The nasal index is calculated as
width of nasal aperture divided by
height of nasal aperture multiplied by
100.

11. Blacks Europeans Mongols
Cephalic
index ( CI )
70 – 74.9 75 – 79.9 80 and
above
Height index
( HI )
72 71 75
Nasal index
( NI )
55 46 50

12. Other differences in different
races
Blacks European Mongols
Orbits Square Triangular Rounded
Nasal
opening
Broad Narrow and
elongated
Rounded
Palate Rectangular Triangular Rounded

13.  The cheek bones or zygomatic arches
are prominent in mongols.
 in mongols, unlike other groups, the
face width generally exceeds the
head width.

14. Mandible and teeth
In Blacks
 lower jaw is strongly prognathic .
 Third molar is bigger than the first two
molars.

15. In Mongols:
 Shovel shaped of upper central incisors.
 Enamel pearls: are small nodules of
enamel on the tooth surface.
 Taurodontism ( bull tooth ): these are
common in Mongols. The pulp cavity is
wide and deep and roots are fused.
 Congenital lack of third upper molar is
common.

16. In white Races
 Carbelli`s cusp: Small nodules on lingual
surface of maxillary molar is common.

17. Limb Bones
 Radio-humeral index
(Brachial index):
Length of RADIUS divided by length
of HUMERUS multiplied by 100.
Europeans Blacks
Radio-
humeral index
Below 75 Above 80

18. Tibio-femoral index
( Crural index ):
Length of tibia divided by length of
femur multiplied by 100.
Europeans Blacks
Tibio-femoral
index
Below 83 Above 83

19. Sex determination
from skeleton

20. General features
Males Females
1 Skeleton comparatively
bigger and stouter, weight
= 4.5 kg
Skeleton comparatively
smaller and slender,
weight = 3.00 kg
2 Muscular ridges,
depressions and
processes more
prominent.
Muscular ridges,
depressions and processes
less prominent.
3 Shaft of long bones
relatively rough & articular
surfaces & ends larger
Shaft of long bones
relatively smooth &
articular surfaces & ends
smaller.

21. Male pelvis Female pelvis
1 Bony framework massive Bony framework less
massive
2 Inlet: deep & narrow Inlet: shallow & wide
3 Ant. Superior iliac spines
not widely seperated
Ant. Superior iliac spines
widely separated
4 Ilium less expanded Ilium more expanded
5 Subpubic arch narrow, V
shaped, angle= 70 degree
Subpubic arch wide, U
shaped, angle>90 degree
6 Ischial tuberosities =
inverted
Ischial tuberosities =
everted

23. 7 Obturator foramen =
ovoid
Obturator foramen =
triangular
8 Greater sciatic notch
narrow, deep, & less
then right angle
Greater sciatic notch wide,
shallow & almost right
angle.
9 Sacrum long & narrow,
has five or more
segments. Well marked
promontory
Sacrum wide & short, has
five segments. Promontory
less marked.
10 Acetabulum wider &
deeper
Acetabulum narrower &
shallower
11 Pelvic brim heart shaped Pelvic brim circular, elliptical

24. 12 Anterior curvature is
equally distributed
along its length.
Anterior curvature is
straight in upper half &
sharply curved in lower
half.
13 Articular surface of
sacrum extends to 2 ½
to 3 vertebral bodies
Articular surface of
sacrum extends to 2 to 2
½ vertebral bodies

25. Femur
Male femur Female femur
1 Head of femur is larger Head of femur is smaller
2 Articular surface forms
more then two thirds of
sphere
Articular surface forms less
then two thirds of sphere
3 Neck forms obtuse angle
with shaft (125 degree)
Neck forms right angle
with shaft

26. Skull
Male Female
1 Bigger, heavier &
rough.
Smaller, lighter, &
smooth.
2 Cranial capacity
almost 10 % more
Cranial capacity almost
10 % less
3 Frontal sinuses more
developed
Frontal sinuses less
developed
4 Fronto-nasal
angulation distinct
Fronto-nasal angulation
smoothly curved

27. Male skull Female skull
5 Glabella, supra-orbital
rigdes, zygomatic arch,
mastoid process,
occipital protuberance,
occipital condyle &
muscular attachments
are more pronouced.
Glabella, supra-orbital
rigdes, zygomatic arch,
mastoid process, occipital
protuberance, occipital
condyle & muscular
attachments are less
pronouced.
6 Orbital opening
comparatively big &
rectangular
Orbital opening
comparatively small &
rounded
7 Facial bones more
massive & not delicate
in texture.
Facial bones less massive
& delicate in texture.

28. Spinal column
Male Female
1 Mean breadth of first
cervical vertebra
83 mm
Mean breadth of first
cervical vertebra
72mm
2 Lumbar lordosis less
marked
Lumbar lordosis more
marked

29. Mandible
Male Female
1 Lower jaw more
massive
Lower jaw less massive
2 Chin - square Chin – pointed or
rounded
3 Symphyseal height
more
Symphyseal height less
4 Ramus – more broad Ramus – less broad
5 Angle region - everted Angle region – not
everted

30. Thorax
Male Female
1 Thoracic cage – longer &
narrower
Thoracic cage – shorter &
wider
2 The ribs have a less
pronounced curvature
The ribs have a more
pronounced curvature
3 Body of sternum is bigger
& more then twice the
length of manubrium
Body of sternum is shorter
& less then twice the
length of manubrium
4 Upper border of sternum
at level of body of 2nd
thoracic vertebra
Upper border of sternum
at level of body of 3nd
thoracic vertebra

31. Sacral index
 Sacral index ( SI ): calculated as breadth of base
divided by anterior length of sacrum multiplied by 100.
Male Female
Sacral index 112 116

32. Ischio-pubic index
 Ischio-pubic index ( IPI ): calculated by ischial length
divided by pubic length multiplied by 100.
Male Female
Ischio-pubic
index
73 - 94 91 -115

33. According to Krogman, degree of
accuracy to determine sex from
bone
Entire skeleton 100 %
Pelvis & skull 98 %
Pelvis alone 95 %
Skull alone 90 %
Long bones alone 80 %

34. Age
determination
from skeleton

35. Mandible
Features Infancy Adult Old age
1 Angle b/w
ramus &
body
Obtuse right angle obtuse
2 Body Shallow &
small
Thin &
elongated
Shallow &
big
3 Ramus Short &
oblique
Stunted Long &
oblique
4 Condylar
process
at lower
level than
coronoid
process
Above the
level of
coronoid
process
Neck is
bent
backward

36. 5 Mental
formamen
Placed near
to the lower
border
Midway b/w
upper &
lower border
Near the
alveolar
margin

37. Spinal column
 In youth : upper and lower surfaces of bodies
of the vertebrae bear radial markings, at age of
10 years.
 By the age of 30 years, they begin to fade and
disappear.
 The osteophytic outgrowths from the anterior
and lateral margins of the intervertebral discs
become visible by 40 years.

38.  The disc undergoes atrophic changes by
about 40 – 45 years.