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- 1. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY Dr. Suchita Rawat (MSc, MPhil, PhD)
- 2. Analysing the differences between animal and human bones. ● Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Cranium ● Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Dentition ● Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Post cranium
- 3. HUMAN ANIMAL Large bulbous vault, small face Small vault, large face Vault relatively smooth Pronounced muscle markings, sagittal crest Inferior Inferior Foramen Magnum Posterior Foramen Magnum Chin present Chin absent Orbits at front, above nasal aperture Orbits at sides, posterior to nasal aperture "U"- shaped mandible (no midline separation) "V"- shaped mandible (separates at midline) Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Cranium
- 4. HUMAN ANIMAL Omnivorous Carnivorous; Herbivorous; Omnivorou Dental formula 2:1:2:3 Basic dental formula 3:1:4:3 incisors (maxillary) are larger than other mammals Horse maxillary incisors are larger than human incisors Canines small Carnivores have large conical canines; Herbivores have small or missing canines Premolars and molars have low, rounded cusps divided by distinct grooves Carnivores have sharp, pointed molars and premolar teeth; Herbivores have broad, flat premolars and molars with parallel furrows and ridges Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Dentition
- 5. Differential Skeletal Anatomy of Humans and Animals: Post cranium Human Animal Upper limbs less robust Robust upper limbs Radius and ulna are separate bones Radius and ulna often fused Large, flat and broad vertebral bodies with short spinous processes Small vertebral bodies with convex/ concave surfaces and long spinous processes Sacrum with 5 fused vertebrae, short and broad Sacrum with 3 or 4 fused vertebrae, long and narrow Pelvis is broad and short, bowl - shaped Pelvis is long and narrow, blade - shaped Femur is longest bone in body, lineaaspera is singular feature Femur is similar length to other limb bones, lineaaspera double or plateau Separate tibia and fibula Tibia and fibula are often fused Foot is long and narrow, weight borne on heel and toes Foot is broad, weight borne mainly on toes
- 7. TRAIT MALE FEMALE General size Larger, more massive Smaller, slender Long bones Ridges, depression and process are more prominent. Bones of arms and legs are 8% longer Less prominent Shaft of long bones Rougher Smoother, thinner with relatively wider medullary cavity Articular surface Larger Smaller Metacarpal bones Longer and broader Shorter and narrower Weight 4.5 kg 2.75 kg Comparison of Male and Female Skeleton
- 8. TRAIT MALE FEMALE General Appearance Larger, longer Smaller, lighter, walls thinner Architecture Rugged, muscle ridges more marked, especially in occipital and temporal areas Smooth Glabella More prominent Small or absent Forehead Steeper less rounded Vertical, round, full Orbits Square, set lower on the face, relatively smaller, rounded margins Rounded higher, relatively larger, sharper margins Supraorbital ridges Prominent Less prominent or absent Zygomatic arch More prominent Less prominent Nasal aperture Higher and narrower. Margins sharp Lower and broader Frontal eminences Small Large Parietal eminences Small Large Occipital area Muscle lines and protuberance prominent Not prominent Comparison of Male and Female Skull
- 9. TRAIT MALE FEMALE Occipital area Muscle lines and protuberance prominent Not prominent Mastoid process Medium to large, round, blunt. Small to medium, smooth, pointed Palate Larger, broader, tends more to be u- shape. Smaller, tends more to be parabolic shape Foramen magnum Relatively large and long Relatively small and round Mandible Larger and thicker Smaller and thinner Ascending ramus Greater breath Smaller breath Mandible Condyles Larger Smaller Angle of body and ramus Less obtuse (under 125º) More obtuse, and not prominent Teeth Larger Smaller Comparison of Male and Female Skull
- 14. Comparison of Male and Female Pelvis Trait Male Female Bony framework Massive, rougher, marked muscle sites. Less massive, slender, smoother General Deep funnel Flat bowl Acetabulum Large and directed laterally Small and directed antero- laterally Obturator Foramen Large, often oval with base upward Small, triangular with apex forward Body of pubis Narrow, triangular Broad, square, pits on posterior surface if borne children Ramus of pubis It is like continuation of body of pubis. Has a constricted or narrowed appearance and is short and thick Sacrum Longer, narrower, with more evenly distributed curvatures, prominently well marked. Body of first sacral vertebra larger. Shorter, wider, upper half almost straight, curve forward in lower half, prominently less marked. Coccyx Less movable More movable
- 15. Comparison of Male and Female Pelvis Trait Male Female Pre-auricular sulcus (attachment of anterior sacroiliac ligament) Not frequent, narrow, shallow More frequent, broad and deep Greater sciatic notch Smaller, narrower, deeper Larger, wider, shallower
- 16. Comparison of Male and Female Pelvis Trait Male Female Symphysis High Low and distance between two pubic tubercles greater. The dorsal border is irregular and shows depressions or pits (scars of parturition) Subpubic angle V-shaped, sharp angle 70º to 75º U-shaped, rounded, broader angle, 90 to 100º Pelvic brim Heart shaped Circular or elliptical, more spacious, diameter longer Pelvic inlet Conical and funnel shaped Broad and rounded
- 20. Sex Determination from Long Bone Measurements & Morphology
- 21. Male vs. female (greater in males) Maximum length Maximum Vertical Diameter of the Head Maximum Transverse Diameter of the Head Bone weight (in gm)
- 22. Male vs. female (greater in males) Maximum length Maximum Vertical Diameter of the Head Maximum Transverse Diameter of the Less curve of bone for males than female
- 23. Male vs. female (greater in males) Maximum length Bone weight Size Shape of head of bone less globular
- 24. Male vs. female (greater in males) Maximum length Maximum Vertical Diameter of the Head Bicondylar width Maximum Trochanteric length Angle formed by neck & Shaft axis If low denotes masculine character
- 25. Male vs. female (greater in males) Maximum length Bicondylar width Weight
- 26. Male vs. female (greater in males) Diameter of middle of bone Bone weight
- 27. Male vs. female (greater in males) Glenoid breadth Total spine length Weight
- 28. Male Female The thoracic cage is longer and narrower. It is shorter and wider. Ribs are thicker and comparatively massive in texture. Ribs are thinner and delicate in texture. Ribs have lesser curvatures. Ribs have greater curvatures. Manubrium Manubrium is somewhat smaller. It is somewhat bigger.
- 29. Sutures of the skull, also known as cranial sutures, are fibrous joints with a fracture-like appearance found between the bones of the skull. Sutures are formed during embryonic development. They are sites for bone expansion, ensuring craniofacial growth during the embryonic, postnatal, and later growth periods. The cranial sutures ossify at different rates, but most sutures have ossified by the age of 20. Sutures of an adult skull are categorized as synarthroses ( a type of joint that, under normal circumstances, is immobile.)
- 30. Figuíe 1: Vault sutuíe closuíe stages. Illustíation of degíees of closuíe foí sagittal sutuíe at obelion. 0 open; there is no evidence of any ectocranial closure 1 minimal closure; the score is assigned to any minimal to moderate closure, from single bony bridge to about 50% synostosis 2 significant closure; there is a marked degree of closure but some portions still not completely fused 3 complete obliteration; the site is completely fused.
- 31. In neonates, the sutures are incompletely fused, leaving membranous gaps called fontanelles. Fontanelles are also often called soft spots. Fontanelle Location closure frontal fontanelle (anterior fontanelle)* at the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures. closes between 12 and 18 months of age occipital fontanelle ( posterior fontanelle)* at the junction between the sagittal and lambdoid suture closes at 6-8 month of birth sphenoid fontanelle (2) located between the sphenoid, temp oral, frontal, and parietal bones. closes at 2 months after birth mastoid fontanelle (2) situated between the temporal, occipital, and parietal bones. closes at 2 months after birth
- 32. The metopic suture is present in newborns. The metopic suture divides the frontal bone along the midline. Metopic suture closes at 2-4 years but may extend up to six years.
- 33. Sutures of neurocranium Sutures Location ossification sagittal suture (2) formed by the two parietal bones articulating with each other. Fusion begins around 25 years & completed by 30 - 35 Years Coronal suture (2) formed at the junction between the parietal bones and frontal bone. Fusion begins around 28 years & completed by 35 - 40 Years lambdoid suture (2) formed at the articulation between the occipital bone and parietal bones. Fusion begins around 30 years & completed by 50 - 55 Years squamous suture (2) formed by the parietal bone and temporal bone. Fusion begins around 50 - 55 years & completed by 70 Years
- 34. Sutures Location ossification Occipito-mastoid suture (2) Formed by the articulation of the occipital bone and the temporal bone's mastoid part Fusion begins around 60 - 65 years & completed by 80 Years Parieto-mastoid suture (2) formed at the Junction between the parietal and temporal bones. Fusion begins around 60 - 65years & completed by 80 - 82 Years Spheno Parietal suture (2) suture between parietalbone and the sphenoid bone. Fusion begins around 60 - 65 years & completed by 80 - 85 Years
- 35. Landmark location Fusion bregma It is the intersection of the coronal and sagittal sutures. site of the frontal fontanelle in neonates and young children, which usually fuses around the age of 2. lambda formed at the convergence between the sagittal and lambdoid sutures. site for the occipital fontanelle was located, which usually closes around 2 months of age. obelion is formed at the intersection of the sagittal suture and an imaginary line that connects the two parietal foramina. - suture-associated landmarks
- 36. Landmark location Asterion (2) site of the previously located mastoid fontanelle at the junction of the parietomastoid, occipitomastoid and lambdoid sutures. closes by 80 years Pterion (2) H-shaped point of junction between four bones: the sphenoid, temporal, fr ontal and parietal bone. starts closing at 40 years and completely closes by 65 years Asterion suture-associated landmarks
- 37. Skeletal Age and Ossification The human bones develop from a number of ossification centers. At 11- 12th week of intrauterine life, there are 806 ossification centers that at birth are reduced to about 450. Adult human is made up of 206 bones. determination of age time of appearance of center of ossification process of union of the epiphysis with the diaphysis at the metaphysis Limitations: Hereditary factors Growth and development Geographical variation Climate Dietary habits Association with diseases
- 38. Ossification of bones Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Clavicle - Medial end 15-19 years 20-22 years
- 39. Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Sternum 5 month IUL 60-70 years Manubrium Body Ist segment) IInd segment IIIrd segment IVth segment 5 month IUL 7 month IUL 7 month IUL 10 month IUL 14-25 years from below upwards; 3rd and 4th -15 years 2 nd & 3rd -20 years 1 st & 2nd -25 years Xiphoid process 3 years >40 years with the body
- 40. Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Humerus (upper end) Head Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle 1 year 3 years 5 years 18 years 4-5 years with head 5-7 years with greater tubercle Humerus (Lower end) Medial Epicondyle Capitulum Trochlea Lateral Epicondyle 5-6 years 1 year 9-10 years 10-12 years Capitulum, trochlea & lateral epicondyle form conjoint tendon at 14 years, unites with shaft at 15 years Medial epicondyle unites at 16 years
- 41. Centers of bones Appearanc e Fusion Scapula Coracoid base Acromion process 10-11 year 14-15 year 14-15 years 17-18 years
- 42. Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Radius Upper end Lower end 5-6 years 1-2 years 15-16 years 18-19 years Ulna Upper end Lower end 8-9 years 5-6 years 16-17 years 18-19 years
- 43. Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Head of Ist metacarpal Head other metacarpals 2 years 1½ to 2½ years 15-17 years 15-19 years
- 44. Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Hip bone • Iliac crest • Ischial tuberosity • Sacrum 14-15 years 15-16 years 8 months IUL 18-20 years 20- 22 years 25 years This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
- 45. Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Femur (Upper end) • Head • Greater trochanter • Lesser trochanter Femur (Lower end) 1 year 4 years 14 years 9 month IUL 17-18 years 17 years 15-17 years 17-18 years
- 46. Centers of bones Appearance Fusion Tibia • Upper end • Lower end 9 month IUL 1 year 16-17 years 16 years
- 47. Type of bone Age of ossification Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate Pisiform Triquetrum Lunate Capitate 4-5 months 4-5 months 2 months 3 months 9-12 years 3 months 4 months 2 months 2 months
- 48. Type of bone Age of ossification Calcaneum Cuboid Lateral cuneiform Medial cuneiform Intermediate cuneiform Navicular Talus 5 months 10 months 1 year 2 years 3 years 3 years 7 months
- 49. Non dominant hand Widely spread of fingers Focus at carpal Maturation (proximal to distal) & fusion (distal side) Carpal Phalanges Radius ulna (terminal fusion) Girls have advance age 1-2 Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxJ11zyhQ1Q
- 51. Distal Phalanx (appearance) Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxJ11zyhQ1Q
- 52. Exceptions
- 58. Maturation score for estimation of skeletal age: ● To minimize the errors of epiphyseal union, Mckern and Stewart in 1957 suggested a scheme of scoring involving seven combinations of various segments. ● The total score is applied to the prediction equation for more accurate age estimation. Degree of union Scoring No union ¼ th union ½ union ¾ th union Complete union 1 2 3 4 5
- 60. Racial Characteristics of the Skull Trait Mongoloid Caucasoid Negroid Skull Length Long Short Long Skull Breadth Broad Broad Narrow Skull Height Middle High Low Sagittal Contour Arched Arched Flat Face Breadth Very wide Wide Narrow Face Height High High Low Orbital Opening Rounded Rounded Rectangular
- 61. Racial Characteristics of the Skull Trait Mongoloid Caucasoid Negroid Nasal Opening Narrow Moderately Wide Wide Nasal Bones Wide Flat Narrow Arched Narrow Lower Nasal Margin Sharp Sharp Troughed Facial Profile Straight Straight Downward slant Palate Shape Broad U-shaped V-shaped U-shaped Shovel-shaped incisors 90% Less than 5 % Less than 5%
- 63. measuring all bones constituting the components of stature, summing those measurements and correcting for the missing soft tissue employing a regression formula with the measurement of a complete bone. employing incomplete limb bones, non-limb bones and alternative statistical methods Alternate statistical approaches (e.g., maximum likelihood estimation) exist to estimate stature.
- 64. Method Do’s Anatomical Method (Complete Skeleton Method) skeletal elements constituting stature minimally damaged. ancestry and sex of the individual cannot be estimated anomalous number of vertebrae individual’s limb bones appear to be atypical in length.
- 65. Bones typically measured in these methods are the height of the skull the heights of each of the vertebrae (a missing vertebra estimate the height by averaging the heights of the vertebra immediately above and below) the lengths of the femur and tibia and the height of the ankle
- 66. Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2019). Stature estimation and other skeletal metrics. Forensic Anthropology, 351–368. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815734-3.00011-7
- 67. Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2019). Stature estimation and other skeletal metrics. Forensic Anthropology, 351–368. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815734-3.00011-7
- 68. Method Do’s Complete Limb Bones (Mathematical Method or Regression Approach) limb bone length or bone lengths selecting the most appropriate regression formula by sex and ancestry, inserting the measurement into the formula, and calculating the estimated stature limb bone measurements are usually maximum lengths he formula with the smallest prediction interval should be the most accurate and precise, and should be employed in the stature estimation
- 69. Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., & Bartelink, E. J. (2019). Stature estimation and other skeletal metrics. Forensic Anthropology, 351–368. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815734-3.00011-7
- 70. Method Do’s Fragmentary Limb Bones Some of these methods require estimating bone length and then estimating stature based on the estimated bone length, thus compounding the error present in the estimation. fragmentary remains estimate stature directly from the fragment, without requiring the second step of the previous method.
- 71. Method Do’s Non-Limb Bones Non-limb bones (e.g., skulls, innominates, and bones of the hands or feet) may also be used to estimate stature
- 77. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA