This document discusses identification of individuals through various biological characteristics and data. Identification can be complete or partial, depending on what information is available about a person. Key data used for identification includes race, sex, age, physical features, fingerprints, DNA, medical records, and belongings. Age can be estimated by examining bone development in the elbow, wrist, and pelvis. Sex can be determined by physical and bone characteristics, as well as microscopic examination of sex chromosomes. Intersex conditions involve ambiguous or mixed physical sex characteristics and can make identification more complex.

1. Identification.
Identification means establishment of Exact individuality
of a person.
It may be, (a). Complete Or total identification- Means,
absolute fixation of the individuality of a person by
scientific analysis of different features & data.
(b). Incomplete Or partial identification- means
establishment of only some facts about the identity of
a person while others remain still unknown.

2. *Data for identification of persons are:*
1. Race, Religion, Ethnicity, Nationality.
2. Sex.
3. Age.
4. Stature, General development & body Built.
5. Complexion.
6. Features of Hair.
7. Features of Eyes.
8. Congenital & Acquired Peculiarities, like Malformations,
Birth marks, Moles, Scar mark, Tattoo marks, Occupational
marks, Deformities, Disease & wounds.

3. 9.Features Present in the Teeth.
10. Photography.
11.Anthropometric measurements including height & weight.
12.Fingerprint- sole print, lip print, palate print etc.
13. Study of DNA profile.
14. Teeth & bite marks.
15.Hand writing & Signature, voice, gait, habits, ticks, manners,
Educational Status, Memory & intelligence - only in living.
16.Dress, Ornaments & other belongings including pocket or
purse articles like diary, passport & letters.

4. 17. Superimposition Technique ( in dead Subjects),
Reconstruction of facial structure & appearance.
18. Facial scratching on the description of the eyewitness.
Question of identification of the living:
A. Civil Cases: ** Marriage, ** Inheritance. **Passport.
* admission on institutions. *insurance or pension claims.
• Disputed Sex, * Missing persons.
B. In criminal cases: *Assault. * Rape. * Sodomy. * Murder.
* Absconding soldiers & criminals. * exchange of newborn
baby in Hospitals. * Impersonation.

5. Question of Identification in dead:
• SUD. Railway accident, aircraft accident, RTA. Mass disaster.
• Mutilated & decomposed bodies.
• Skeleton Or isolated bones.
• Exhumed dead bodies, ** Partially burnt dead bodies in
fires or explosion.
RACE: “may be defined as the biological concept denoting the
different breeding of origin of human beings Or genital trait
united by common heredity.”
3 fundamental or original Races. 1. Caucasians or caucasoids.

6. 2.Mongolians Or Mongoloids.
3. Negroes Or Negroids.
Caucasians- Indigenous of Europe, North Africa, Western Asia &
india.
Mongolians- east Asia- (china, Japan, Indonesia), parts of America.
Negroes- Africa, America, Parts of Asia.
Determination of Race. 1. complexion- skin of caucasians white
Coppery red Or yellow in mongolians & black in negroes. Bdi brawn
or dark.
2. Hair- Cacasians (Europeans) fair or Light brawn or reddish.

7. Mongolians – course, dark, straight or wavy hair. Negroes-
black frizzy or wooly hair.
Bdi black fine straight or wavy hair.
3. Eyes – (iris) – caucasians ( Europeans)- blue or grey,
Mongolians & Negroes- brawn.
Bdi -dark or brawn.
4. lips- Negroes thick lips which are slightly everted.
5. Clothes – traditional dress of different races may be helpful.
6. Skeleton – by cephalic index , also by indices of long bones.

8. Cephalic Index: (C.I.) - It is the Ratio which is obtained by
measuring the maximum transverse breadth of a skull
dividing by the maximum antero-posterior length X 100.
Based on the CI-- a skull may be, 1. Dolico-cephalic or long
headed . CI = 70-74.9- Aborigin, Negroes & Aryans.
2. Mesati-cephalic or medium long headed. CI= 75--79.9
Caucasins ( Europeans), chines & most Bangladeshi.
3. Brachy-cephalic or round or short headed. CI= 80-84.9
Mongolians, Garo & chakma of BDi.

9. ML Skull & Pelvis:
Skull: * Race by CI. * Sex- by comparing. * Age- by taking x-ray.
• Determination of cause of death if Fracture found in the
skull.
• Single large hole- bullet injury.
• Multiple holes- pillet injury.
• Poisons- As/ Lead deposited in the skull.
• Individuals can be identified by superimposition of soft
tissue on skull.

10. **Identification of Age by x-ray of appearance of ossification
Centres & union of bones:
Usually detect age by doing x-ray of,
1. Elbow Joint. 2. Wrist Joint. & 3. Pelvis.
14 years:
1.Elbow Joint: * Medial Epicondyle humerous, ( 5-6yrs)- United
**Lateral epicondyle humerous, (10-12yrs)- United.
** Head of the Radius (5-6yrs),----- United 13-14 yrs.
** Tip of Olecranon ( 9-11yrs), - Not United. ( 14-15yrs).

11. 2. Wrist joint:
**Lower end of Radius (1yr.), Not United. ( Unite 17-18yrs)
**Lower end of Ulna (5-6yrs), Not united. ( unite 17yrs).
**The pisiform bone (9-12yrs appeared)
3. pelvis:
**The Iliac Crest (14yrs) but not United. (United 17-19yrs)
**The Ischial Tuberosity (14-15yrs) (Unite 20yrs).
15YRS:
1. Elbow Joint: ** Medial Epicondyle Humerus - United.
** Lateral Epicondyle Humerous- United.

12. ** Head of Radius- United.
**Tip of Olecranon – United
2. Wrist Joint:
**Lower end of Radius (1yr)- Not united. ( 17-18yrs)
** Lower end of Ulna (5-6yrs) - Not United. (17yrs)
**The pisiform bone has just Appeared.
3. Pelvis:
**The iliac Crest appeared (14yrs) but not united. (20yrs)
**The ischial tuberosity (14-16yrs) (Unite-20yrs)

13. 16 years:
1. Elbow Joint: **Medial Epicondyle Humerous- United.
** Lateral epicondyle Humerous- - United.
** Head of radius- United.
**Tip of olecranon- United.
2. Wrist Joint:
**Lower end of Radius (1yr) starts uniting (17-18yrs).
**lower end of Ulna(5-6yrs) starts uniting (17yrs).
** pisiform bone Appeared.
3. * iliac Crest ( 14yrs) but not united ( 19yrs.)

14. * Ischial Tuberosity (14-15yrs) but not united ( 20yrs).
17yrs .
1.Elbow joints:
**Medial epicondyle & lateral epicondyle humerous united.
** Head of Radius & Tip of olecranon – United.
2. Wrist joint : *lower end of radius(1yr), starts union not
complete ( 17-18yrs)
** Lower end of ulna (5-6yrs), united (17yrs).
** pisiform bone appeared.
3. Pelvis- iliac crest (14yrs)union process starts, not complete.

15. *Ischial tuberosity (14-15yrs) , not united( 20yrs).
• After 25 years, age calculated on Decades.
**At 30-40 yrs- sagittal & Coronal suture unites.
** At 40-50 yrs— Lamdoid suture unites.
** At 50 -60 yrs – Parieto-mastoid & squmous suture Unites.
** 70yrs– Spheno-parietal suture unites.

16. * Determination of Sex.
Question of determination of sex arises in,
*Gonadal Dysgenesis cases in Living,
& in extremely Decomposed Or Mutilated dead bodies Or in
case of bony remains of a body.
Gonadal Dysgenesis cases namely intersex ( turner’s syndrome,
klinefelter’s Syndrome, True & pseudo Hermaphroditism).
Sex of a person can be determined from,
1. Physical Or morphological Features.
2. Bones, 3. Microscopic study of Sex Chromatins in cells,
4.Dress, 5. Gonadal biopsy, 6. Hormonal study (in intersex case

17. In Highly decomposed dead bodies, Prostate & uterus if found
can say about sex. Bone examination also can say sex
features.
In mutilated bodies, when some fragments are available, sex
can be determined from the presence Or absence of facial Or
body hair, distribution of pubic hair, breasts, sex organs,
shape of shoulder & hip, waist, shape of buttock, shape of
thigh, toughness & delicacy of skin, predominance of
musculature, Subcutaneous fat. Bone exam. also can help.
Determination of sex from Bones:
From whole skeleton, sex determined 100%, from skull + pelvis

18. 98% cases, Only pelvis-95% cases, only skull-90% cases,
With Long bones- 80- 85% cases.
Of all the bones, Pelvis, skull, mandible, sternum with
manubrium & femur help maximum to determine sex.
Sex differentiating features in skull:
1. Size- 2. glabella- 3. Supra orbital ridge- 4. Mastoid process
5.Occipital protruberance- 6. Zygomatic arch- 7. Forhead-
8.Frontal Eminence- 9. Orbit- 10. Nasion- 11.malar
prominence- 12. Nasal aperture- 13. Parietal eminence-
14. Occipital condyles- 15. Foramina- 16. Palate- 17. digastric
Groove- 18. frontal sinuses- 19. teeth- 20. bony surface-

19. Sex differentiating features of Hip bone:
1. General features- 2. Ilium- 3. Obturator Foramen—
4. Greater sciatic Notch- 5. Pre-auricular Sulcus- 6. Acetabulum
7. Ischio-pubic Rami- 8. shape of Pubis- 9. Pubic Symphysis-
10.Ischial tuberosity- 11. Ischio-pubic Index- 12. auricular
surface-
Sex differentiating features in articulated Pelvis:
1. Pelvic Brim- 2. True Pelvis- 3. Sub Pubic angle-
4. Distance between two anterior superior iliac spine.
5. Distance between highest point of iliac crests of two sides.

20. *Sex differentiating features in Femur:
1. Head. 2. Neck & Shaft. 3. Inward inclination of the
shaft at the lower End- 4. vertical diameter of the
Head. 5.Trochanteric Oblique length. 6. Popliteal line-
7. Bicondylar width- 8. general features-
Determination of Sex of a person by microscopic study of sex
chromatins:
XX pattern of sex chromosomes of female-
In neutrophil, we find visible sex chromatin as Davidson Bodies
– 1.5 micron diameter, in females found more than 3% of all
neutrophils.

21. In squamous cells of mouth+ vaginal mucus membrane, sex
chromatin found in the form of BARR BODIES which are deep
stained, compact, plano-convex masses situated in side the
nucleus near the nuclear wall.
More than 15% found.
Male not found or too less number may be found.
No sex chromatin in gonadal agenesis.
In intersex cases, BIOPSY Imp.
INTERSEX: may be defined as,” intermingling in one individual
of characters of both sexes in varying degrees, including
physical form, reproductive organs & sexual behavior.”

22. Intersex can be divided in 4 groups:
1. Gonadal agenesis.
2. Gonadal Dysgenesis- external sexual structure present but
at puberty the testis or ovary fail to develop.
A. klinefelter’s syndrome- most common major abnormality
of sexual differentiation. Occurs 500-1000 newborns, who
in matured age are infertile, with some degree of mental
retardation.
Anatomical structure male but the nuclear sexing female. Sex
chromosomes pattern is XXY (47 chromosomes).