Amphibolic nature of kreb's cycle
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The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that break down acetyl groups from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide, generating reduced coenzymes that are used to produce ATP. The cycle includes both catabolic reactions that generate energy and anabolic reactions that produce precursors for biosynthesis. Anaplerosis and cataplerosis refer to reactions that replenish or remove intermediates from the Krebs cycle.
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Gluconeogenesis -
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors and occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys. Key substrates include lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The process is regulated by substrate availability and key enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. Gluconeogenesis is critical for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS
This document summarizes the process of de novo fatty acid synthesis. It occurs in the cytosol of liver, kidney, adipose tissue, and lactating mammary glands. Acetyl-CoA is the starting material, which is transported from mitochondria to the cytosol via citrate. In the cytosol, fatty acid synthase complex catalyzes the reactions to produce palmitic acid (C16) through cycles of condensation, reduction, dehydration, and reduction. The process requires acetyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA, ATP, and NADPH as substrates and is regulated by enzymes and hormones.
Pentose phosphate pathway,hmp shunt
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt (HMP) or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative glucose metabolism pathway to glycolysis. It is more complex than glycolysis and takes place in the cytosol. The PPP is important for generating NADPH for biosynthesis of fatty acids, steriods, and maintaining glutathione levels, as well as producing pentoses used in nucleic acid synthesis. The pathway contains oxidative and non-oxidative phases, with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase being the regulatory enzymes controlled by NADPH and pentose levels.
electron transport chain
The electron transport chain (ETC) transfers electrons from electron donors like NADH to electron acceptors like oxygen via redox reactions across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. The ETC consists of 4 complexes along the inner mitochondrial membrane containing enzymes and proteins. As electrons are passed from one complex to the next, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This proton gradient powers ATP synthase to generate ATP, the energy currency of cells.
Fatty acid oxidation ( Beta , Alpha omega and peroxisomal)
1. Beta-oxidation is the major pathway for fatty acid oxidation that occurs in the mitochondria. It involves activation of fatty acids to acyl-CoA derivatives, transport into the mitochondria, and four steps of beta-oxidation to sequentially cleave two-carbon acetyl-CoA units, producing ATP.
2. Minor pathways include alpha-oxidation of phytanic acid in peroxisomes, omega-oxidation of fatty acids in the ER, and peroxisomal beta-oxidation of very long chain fatty acids.
3. Defects in these pathways can cause diseases like Refsum's disease and Zellweger syndrome. Medium chain acyl-CoA
TCA CYCLE & ITS REGULATION
The TCA cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle, is the central metabolic pathway that catalyzes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. The TCA cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is the final common pathway for the oxidation of these three macronutrient types. Through a series of chemical reactions, acetyl-CoA is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions that will be used in the electron transport chain to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
GLYCOLYSIS & ITS REGULATION
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and has three phases: energy investment, splitting of molecules, and energy generation. Glycolysis is regulated by three key enzymes - hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. It yields two ATP per glucose under anaerobic conditions when pyruvate is reduced to lactate, and eight ATP when pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle under aerobic conditions.
Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
The Hexose Monophosphate Shunt (HMP shunt) is an alternative pathway to glucose oxidation that generates NADPH and pentose sugars rather than ATP. It occurs in the cytosol and is most active in tissues involved in lipid and steroid biosynthesis that require NADPH. The pathway has an oxidative phase that produces NADPH and a non-oxidative phase that regenerates pentose sugars. It is important because it provides precursors for nucleic acid synthesis and NADPH for lipid synthesis, steroidogenesis, and antioxidant defenses. Deficiencies in the pathway can cause hemolytic anemia or neurological disorders.
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This document summarizes the process of de novo fatty acid synthesis. It occurs in the cytosol of liver, kidney, adipose tissue, and lactating mammary glands. Acetyl-CoA is the starting material, which is transported from mitochondria to the cytosol via citrate. In the cytosol, fatty acid synthase complex catalyzes the reactions to produce palmitic acid (C16) through cycles of condensation, reduction, dehydration, and reduction. The process requires acetyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA, ATP, and NADPH as substrates and is regulated by enzymes and hormones.
Pentose phosphate pathway,hmp shunt
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electron transport chain
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Fatty acid oxidation ( Beta , Alpha omega and peroxisomal)
1. Beta-oxidation is the major pathway for fatty acid oxidation that occurs in the mitochondria. It involves activation of fatty acids to acyl-CoA derivatives, transport into the mitochondria, and four steps of beta-oxidation to sequentially cleave two-carbon acetyl-CoA units, producing ATP.
2. Minor pathways include alpha-oxidation of phytanic acid in peroxisomes, omega-oxidation of fatty acids in the ER, and peroxisomal beta-oxidation of very long chain fatty acids.
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The TCA cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle, is the central metabolic pathway that catalyzes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. The TCA cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is the final common pathway for the oxidation of these three macronutrient types. Through a series of chemical reactions, acetyl-CoA is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions that will be used in the electron transport chain to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
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Electron transport chain
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2. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose-1-phosphate through the addition of glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds and branching via alpha-1,6 bonds, forming a branched polymer structure.
3. Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver and muscles, with liver glycogen functioning to regulate blood glucose levels between meals through glycogenolysis and export of glucose, while muscle glycogen provides glucose for local glycolysis.
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1. Beta-oxidation is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to produce acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle.
2. It involves three main stages: activation of fatty acids in the cytosol, transport into the mitochondria via carnitine shuttle, and beta-oxidation within the mitochondrial matrix.
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Electron Transport Chain ETC
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of protein complexes and carriers in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transport electrons from electron donors like NADH to final acceptors like oxygen. This transports protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, building up a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing approximately 34 ATP per glucose. The ETC is crucial for aerobic respiration as it extracts much more energy than glycolysis and the Krebs cycle alone.
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2) Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in the mitochondria, providing the two-carbon unit that enters the Krebs cycle.
3) The cycle is amphibolic, meaning it is both catabolic, breaking down molecules, and anabolic,
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Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are two key pathways in cellular respiration. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose in the cytoplasm to produce pyruvate, ATP, and NADH. The citric acid cycle then occurs in the mitochondria, where pyruvate and Coenzyme A are oxidized and carbon dioxide is released, producing more ATP and NADH to be used in the electron transport chain. Both pathways are critical for producing energy in the form of ATP through the oxidation of nutrients like glucose, fats, and amino acids.
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Beta-oxidation of fatty acids
This document provides information on beta-oxidation of fatty acids. It discusses the three stages of beta-oxidation: activation of fatty acids in the cytosol, transport into mitochondria via carnitine shuttle, and beta-oxidation in the mitochondrial matrix. The four reactions of each beta-oxidation cycle are also described: oxidation, hydration, oxidation, and cleavage. Deficiencies in beta-oxidation can cause conditions like sudden infant death syndrome.
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ETC is the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen via electron carriers. This releases energy to drive ATP synthesis from ADP and Pi. Multiple protein complexes make up the electron transport chain, passing electrons from one complex to the next until reaching oxygen. As electrons are passed, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, building up a proton gradient used for ATP production.
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Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria. PDH is a multi-enzyme complex containing five coenzymes and three enzymes that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. This generates acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2, with the NADH and FADH2 contributing to ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. PDH activity is regulated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and end-product inhibition by acetyl CoA and NADH.
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2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
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The document discusses lipids and triglycerides, explaining that triglycerides are composed of a glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acids and serve as the main form of energy storage. It describes the processes of lipogenesis where triglycerides are synthesized from glucose, and lipolysis where triglycerides are broken down by hormones to release fatty acids. The summary also notes that triglycerides are stored in adipose tissue and mobilized from there to meet energy needs or deposited in the liver in conditions like fatty liver disease.
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This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
1) Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in two stages.
2) Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the flux of glycolysis.
3) Under anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated through lactic acid or ethanol fermentation to allow glycolysis to continue.
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This document summarizes gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors. It describes the major substrates and sites of gluconeogenesis, its importance during fasting, and how it resembles the reversed pathway of glycolysis. Key enzymes that bypass irreversible glycolysis steps are pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by substrates, enzymes like pyruvate carboxylase, and hormones including glucagon and glucocorticoids.
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The document discusses amino acid metabolism. It begins by defining amino acids as derivatives of carboxylic acids with an amino group substitution. Amino acids are essential for building proteins and participate in many metabolic reactions. They are classified by the properties of their side chains. Protein digestion involves proteases in the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine that hydrolyze proteins into amino acids. Amino acids are absorbed into the blood and transported to tissues. Within cells, amino groups are transferred between amino acids and ketoacids in transamination reactions or removed as ammonia by deamination. The liver converts ammonia into less toxic urea via the urea cycle to prevent intoxication. Defects in the urea cycle can
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Glycogenesis
1. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, the storage form of carbohydrates in animals and plants.
2. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose-1-phosphate through the addition of glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds and branching via alpha-1,6 bonds, forming a branched polymer structure.
3. Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver and muscles, with liver glycogen functioning to regulate blood glucose levels between meals through glycogenolysis and export of glucose, while muscle glycogen provides glucose for local glycolysis.
β Oxidation of fatty acid
1. Beta-oxidation is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to produce acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle.
2. It involves three main stages: activation of fatty acids in the cytosol, transport into the mitochondria via carnitine shuttle, and beta-oxidation within the mitochondrial matrix.
3. During beta-oxidation, fatty acid chains are shortened by two carbons in each cycle through four steps, producing acetyl-CoA and reducing equivalents like FADH2 and NADH that generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
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The TCA cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle) is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that breaks down acetyl-CoA molecules derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide. It is a cyclic process where oxaloacetate is regenerated at the end of each cycle. The cycle produces reduced electron carriers NADH and FADH2 that feed into the electron transport chain to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. It is a central metabolic hub that connects several biochemical pathways and provides precursors for biosynthesis.
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Lipid metabolism involves the oxidation of fatty acids to produce energy. There are three main types of fatty acid oxidation: beta, alpha, and omega. Beta-oxidation occurs in the mitochondria and breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA via a four-step process. Cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA in the liver through a series of reactions. Ketone bodies such as acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are produced from acetyl-CoA in the liver during periods of low glucose and provide energy for other tissues. Lipoproteins such as chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL are involved in transporting lipids between tissues.
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1. Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts and increase the rate of biochemical reactions without being consumed.
2. Coenzymes and cofactors are non-protein molecules required for enzymatic activity. Coenzymes include NAD+, FAD, and ATP.
3. Enzymes can be classified based on their catalytic action, such as oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases.
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The pentose phosphate pathway, also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt, is an alternative metabolic pathway to glycolysis that occurs in the cytosol. It is a complex pathway that helps generate NADPH for fatty acid synthesis and glutathione for antioxidant activity, as well as synthesizing ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide and nucleic acid formation. Glucose-6-phosphate enters the pathway and is oxidized through a two-phase process involving dehydrogenation using NADP+ instead of NAD+. Several intermediates are formed and rearranged before regenerating glucose-6-phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to complete the nonoxidative phase. Genetic defects in glucose-6
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Krebs cycle
The document discusses the citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It provides information on:
1) The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and involves a series of chemical reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2 to generate energy.
2) Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in the mitochondria, providing the two-carbon unit that enters the Krebs cycle.
3) The cycle is amphibolic, meaning it is both catabolic, breaking down molecules, and anabolic,
GLYCOLYSIS.pptx
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are two key pathways in cellular respiration. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose in the cytoplasm to produce pyruvate, ATP, and NADH. The citric acid cycle then occurs in the mitochondria, where pyruvate and Coenzyme A are oxidized and carbon dioxide is released, producing more ATP and NADH to be used in the electron transport chain. Both pathways are critical for producing energy in the form of ATP through the oxidation of nutrients like glucose, fats, and amino acids.
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“TCA cycle is the series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into ATP.” TCA cycle or Tricarboxylic Cycle is also known as Kreb's Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle.
Citric acid cycle, krebs cycle, by atindra pandey
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle occurs in the matrix of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotic cells. It involves 8 steps to oxidize acetyl-CoA from carbohydrate metabolism into carbon dioxide, producing reduced cofactors NADH and FADH2 that drive oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP. The cycle is a central pathway that unifies many metabolic processes and is the main source of energy for cellular respiration.
Citric acid cycle, krebs cycle, by Dr atindra pandey
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle occurs in the matrix of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotic cells. It involves 8 steps to oxidize acetyl-CoA completely, producing carbon dioxide, GTP, and the electron carriers NADH and FADH2 to be used in the electron transport chain to generate ATP. The cycle is an important source of energy and precursor molecules for biosynthesis in cells.
TCA & glyoxylate cycle
The TCA cycle and glyoxylate cycle are key metabolic pathways. The TCA cycle occurs in mitochondria and involves a series of reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide, GTP, and NADH. The glyoxylate cycle is similar but allows microbes to use simple carbon sources by bypassing decarboxylation steps and converting acetyl-CoA into carbohydrates like glucose instead of oxidizing it fully. Both cycles share five enzymes but differ in that the glyoxylate cycle converts isocitrate into glyoxylate and succinate via isocitrate lyase instead of into α-ketoglutarate.
citric acid cycle -overview and process to know about
The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle or Krebs cycle) is a series of chemical reactions that release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle produces carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and GTP that drive ATP production. Intermediates of the cycle are also precursors for amino acid, fatty acid, and nucleotide biosynthesis. Regulation occurs through substrate availability and product inhibition to control metabolic energy production and anabolic processes.
TCA 2.pptx
The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions that takes place in the mitochondria and is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules like carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It consists of 8 steps where acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and is oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and reducing NAD+ and FAD to NADH and FADH2. The NADH and FADH2 then feed into the electron transport chain to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Oxaloacetate is regenerated at the end of the cycle to condense with another acetyl-CoA molecule and continue the cycle.
The tricarboxylic acid cycle
The document summarizes key aspects of the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle):
1) The cycle involves 8 steps that oxidize acetyl groups from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide and reduce NAD+ to NADH to generate energy in the form of ATP.
2) Two carbon atoms from acetyl-CoA enter the cycle per turn and two carbon dioxide molecules exit, while NADH, FADH2, and GTP that power oxidative phosphorylation are produced.
3) The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is regulated by feedback inhibition of citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and α-ketog
The_citric_acid_cycle[1].pdf
The citric acid cycle is the final stage of breaking down nutrients and occurs in the mitochondria. It uses acetyl-CoA molecules to produce carbon dioxide, hydrogen atoms, and ATP through a set of 8 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. First, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, which then feeds into the citric acid cycle to be oxidized and generate energy. The cycle is regulated by the energy levels of the cell and produces precursors for biosynthesis.
Fat metabolism
This document summarizes fat metabolism and the oxidation of fatty acids. It discusses:
1) Fat provides more calories per gram than carbohydrates during oxidation. Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to break them down into acetyl-CoA molecules.
2) The oxidation of fatty acids requires activation to fatty acyl-CoA and transport into the mitochondria by the carnitine shuttle system. Within the mitochondria, beta-oxidation occurs through cycles of dehydrogenation, hydration, and cleavage.
3) Ketone bodies (acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate) are produced when fatty acid oxidation exceeds the body's energy needs, such as during fasting or
Regulaion of tca and glyoxylate cycle
The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) is the central metabolic pathway that produces energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It occurs in the mitochondria and involves 8 steps to fully oxidize acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and ATP. Regulation of the cycle is achieved through feedback inhibition by products like ATP, acetyl-CoA, and NADH levels. The cycle plays an important anabolic role by providing intermediates for biosynthesis.
lipids
1. Lipid metabolism involves the oxidation of fatty acids and cholesterol biosynthesis. Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation to produce acetyl-CoA for the citric acid cycle. Cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA in the cytosol.
2. Beta-oxidation of fatty acids occurs through four steps in the mitochondria to ultimately produce acetyl-CoA. Cholesterol synthesis involves multiple enzyme-catalyzed steps beginning with the formation of mevalonate from acetyl-CoA.
3. Lipid transport involves chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL. Diseases can arise from defects in lipid metabolism pathways or lipid transport systems. Blood lipid levels
BIOC 202 Metabolism of lipids 2-1.ppt
This document summarizes lipid metabolism, including the classification, structure, and functions of lipids like triglycerides, fatty acids, and cholesterol. It describes lipid storage and mobilization in adipose tissue, as well as the processes of lipolysis, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, and ketogenesis. Key enzymes and pathways involved in fatty acid synthesis and cholesterol biosynthesis are also outlined. The document concludes by discussing the roles of obesity and atherosclerosis in coronary heart disease.
Lipid Metabolism, Energy yield from fatty acid oxidation & ketone bodies
1. Lipid metabolism yields a high amount of energy through the beta-oxidation pathway. The oxidation of palmitoyl CoA produces 8 acetyl CoA molecules, 7 NADH molecules, and 7 FADH2 molecules, which can generate a total of 131 ATP molecules, with a net yield of 129 ATP after accounting for activation costs.
2. Ketone bodies, including acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone, are produced by the liver during periods of fasting and starvation from acetyl CoA generated through fatty acid oxidation. Ketone bodies can be used as an energy source by tissues like brain and muscle.
3. During fasting, fatty acids are oxid
AMPHIBOLIC ROLE OF KREBS CYCLE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ANAPLEROTIC REACTIONS
The document discusses the amphibolic role of the Krebs cycle, specifically its anaplerotic reactions. The Krebs cycle contains both catabolic and anabolic reactions. It is amphibolic in nature. Anaplerosis refers to enzymatic reactions that replenish intermediates of the Krebs cycle from the cytosol, such as the reaction catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase which replenishes oxaloacetate. The Krebs cycle oxidizes acetyl-CoA into carbon dioxide and water while generating reduced coenzymes that are reoxidized to produce ATP. It also provides precursors for biosynthetic pathways through anabolic reactions.
tcacycle-140120110023+386382-phpapp01.pdf
The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) is a series of oxidation-reduction reactions that occur in mitochondria and are the central metabolic hub of the cell. The cycle involves 8 steps to oxidize acetyl groups from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and GTP. This provides energy to drive ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain, yielding approximately 12 molecules of ATP per acetyl group. Oxygen is required indirectly to regenerate NAD+ and FADH2.
Lipid Metabolism: Anabolism
Concept of metabolism; lipid biosynthesis: fatty acid (Storage lipid) biosynthesis; biosynthesis of Membrane lipids
Similar to Amphibolic nature of kreb's cycle (20)
Citric acid cycle, krebs cycle, by Dr atindra pandey
Citric acid cycle, krebs cycle, by Dr atindra pandey
citric acid cycle -overview and process to know about
citric acid cycle -overview and process to know about
Lipid Metabolism, Energy yield from fatty acid oxidation & ketone bodies
Lipid Metabolism, Energy yield from fatty acid oxidation & ketone bodies
AMPHIBOLIC ROLE OF KREBS CYCLE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ANAPLEROTIC REACTIONS
AMPHIBOLIC ROLE OF KREBS CYCLE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ANAPLEROTIC REACTIONS
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Amphibolic nature of kreb's cycle
- 2. Cells are constantly carrying out thousands of chemical reactions needed to keep the cell, and your body as a whole, alive and healthy. These chemical reactions are often linked together in chains, or pathways. All of the chemical reactions that take place inside of a cell are collectively called the cell’s metabolism. Overview of metabolism
- 3. Metabolic pathways can be broadly divided into two categories based on their effects. Photosynthesis, which builds sugars out of smaller molecules, is a "building up," or anabolic, pathway. In contrast, cellular respiration breaks sugar down into smaller molecules and is a "breaking down," or catabolic, pathway. ATP ATP + +
- 4. • Contains both catabolic and anabolic reactions. • Catabolic – Energy from oxidation of acetyl CoA is stored in reduced coenzymes. • Anabolic – Several intermediates are precursors in biosynthetic pathways Krebs Cycle is Amphibolic
- 5. The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle, Tricarboxylic acid cycle) includes a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in mitochondria that result in the oxidation of an acetyl group to two molecules of carbon dioxide and reduce the coenzymes that are reoxidized through the electron transport chain, linked to the formation of ATP An overview of TCA cycle
- 6. Citrate Isocitrate α ketoglutarateSuccinyl CoA Succinate Fumarate malate Oxlaoacetate Acetyl CoA PyruvateCO2 Fatty acid Cholesterol Amino Porphyrin Isoleusine methionine valine Odd chain fatty acid Aspartate phenylalanine tyrosine Glucose Acids • anabolic pathways (red arrows) • anaplerotic reactions replenish depleted cycle intermediates (dark green arrows). • Catabolic – Energy from oxidation of acetyl CoA is stored in reduced coenzymes. • Anabolic – Several intermediates are precursors in biosynthetic pathways.
- 7. Anaplerosis is a series of enzymatic reactions in which metabolic intermediates enter the citric acid cycle from the cytosol. Cataplerosis is the opposite, a process where intermediates leave the citric acid cycle and enter the cytosol. In muscle, anaplerosis is important for increasing citric acid throughput during periods of exercise. Anaplerosis and Cataplerosis
- 8. • The reaction catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase that replenishes oxaloacetate to the TCA cycle is a good example of an anaplerotic, or “filling up,” reaction. • pyruvate+ CO2 + ATP +H2O → oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi + 2 H+ • This reaction assures that there is sufficient oxaloacetate for condensation with acetyl CoA. In fact, acetyl CoA stimulates pyruvate carboxylase. • This reaction is most important, especially in liver and kidney.
- 9. There is some evidence that anaplerosis is required for a glucose-induced rise in mitochondrial ATP production. Some amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) enter and leave the citric acid cycle through anaplerosis and cataplerosis. Reactions Enzymes Tissue /organism Pyruvate +HCO3̄̄̄̄̄ + ATP Pyruvate carboxylase oxaloacetate + ADP+Pi Lever, kidney Phosphoenolpyruvate+CO2+GDP PEP carboxylase oxaloacetate+GTP Heart, skeletal muscles Phosphoenolpyruvate+HCO3 PEP carboxylase oxaloacetate+Pi Higher plant, yeast, bacteria Pyruvate +HCO3 + NADPH malic enzyme malate+NADPH+ Eukaryotes and prokaryotes Anaplerotic Reactions
- 11. Protein may serve an excellent sources of nutrient energy Catabolism of amino acids provides: succinate, oxaloacetate, fumarate, αketoglutarate. Pyruvate (from glycolysis) • acetyl CoA stimulates pyruvate carboxylase Proteins can also be broken down to feed into the citric acid cycle and generate energy Under extreme starvation in animals or during senescence in plants polypeptides are cleaved to amino acids, amino group is cleaved off of amino acid forming an organic acid that can enter the citric acid cycle
- 12. Oxaloacetic acid Fumaric acid Succinic acid α ketoglutarate Pyruvic acid Acetyl CoA Alanine, cysteine, glycine, serine, threonine, tryptophan Tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine Arginine, Glutamine, Histidine, Proline Isoleucine, methionine, valine Phenylalanine, Tyrosine Asparagine, aspartate NH3 Urea NH3 Urea NH3 Urea NH3 Urea NH3 Urea NH3 Urea