Fatty acids are synthesized in the liver and adipose tissue through three main stages: transport of acetyl-CoA into the cytosol, carboxylation of acetyl-CoA, and assembly of the fatty acid chain. Acetyl-CoA is converted to malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase, then fatty acid chains are elongated through cycles of condensation, reduction, dehydration, and reduction using malonyl-ACP as the donor of additional two carbon units. When a 16-carbon palmitate chain is complete, it is released from the fatty acid synthase complex. Triacylglycerols and phospholipids are then synthesized from glycerol-
Systematic qualitative analysis of organic compounds is a fundamental aspect of pharmaceutical organic chemistry. It involves the systematic identification of functional groups and other characteristic features present in organic molecules. This process typically includes a series of chemical tests and analytical techniques aimed at determining the identity of organic compounds based on their chemical properties and reactions.
The qualitative analysis of organic compounds involves techniques such as:
1. **Solubility tests**: Determining the solubility of the compound in various solvents to infer the nature of functional groups present.
2. **Acid-base reactions**: Testing the compound's behavior in acidic and basic conditions to identify acidic and basic functional groups.
3. **Functional group tests**: Performing specific chemical tests to detect the presence of functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amines, etc.
In addition to qualitative analysis, pharmaceutical organic chemistry also encompasses the analysis of binary mixtures, which involves the identification and separation of two components present in a mixture. Techniques such as fractional distillation, extraction, chromatography, and spectroscopic methods (e.g., infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy) are commonly employed for the analysis of binary mixtures.
The systematic qualitative analysis and analysis of binary mixtures play crucial roles in pharmaceutical research, drug development, quality control, and regulatory compliance in the pharmaceutical industry. These analytical techniques help ensure the purity, identity, and efficacy of pharmaceutical compounds, ultimately contributing to the advancement of healthcare and medicine.
Beta oxidation is the process of synthesis of energy molecules in the form of ATP from fathy acids. by this pathway much energy is produce as compare to proteins and charbohydrates. this is mitochondrial pathway as enzymes are present within mitochondria
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
Systematic qualitative analysis of organic compounds is a fundamental aspect of pharmaceutical organic chemistry. It involves the systematic identification of functional groups and other characteristic features present in organic molecules. This process typically includes a series of chemical tests and analytical techniques aimed at determining the identity of organic compounds based on their chemical properties and reactions.
The qualitative analysis of organic compounds involves techniques such as:
1. **Solubility tests**: Determining the solubility of the compound in various solvents to infer the nature of functional groups present.
2. **Acid-base reactions**: Testing the compound's behavior in acidic and basic conditions to identify acidic and basic functional groups.
3. **Functional group tests**: Performing specific chemical tests to detect the presence of functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amines, etc.
In addition to qualitative analysis, pharmaceutical organic chemistry also encompasses the analysis of binary mixtures, which involves the identification and separation of two components present in a mixture. Techniques such as fractional distillation, extraction, chromatography, and spectroscopic methods (e.g., infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy) are commonly employed for the analysis of binary mixtures.
The systematic qualitative analysis and analysis of binary mixtures play crucial roles in pharmaceutical research, drug development, quality control, and regulatory compliance in the pharmaceutical industry. These analytical techniques help ensure the purity, identity, and efficacy of pharmaceutical compounds, ultimately contributing to the advancement of healthcare and medicine.
Beta oxidation is the process of synthesis of energy molecules in the form of ATP from fathy acids. by this pathway much energy is produce as compare to proteins and charbohydrates. this is mitochondrial pathway as enzymes are present within mitochondria
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
The NO2 group attached with organic chain is called as nitro functional group. All the compounds containing the nitro functional group are called as organic nitro compounds.
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
Synthesis of Salicylic Acid, Organic Synthesis
In this ppt competitive inhibition of enzymes is fully explained with its examples. it will be helpful for all the life science students. Non Competitive inhibition , Uncompetitive inhibition & Irreversible inhibition of Enzymes have been well explained in this presentation. it will be helpful for biochemistry, botany, zoology and other life/bio sciences students. I tried to explain Allosteric enzymes, their mechanism of action, Allosteric inhibition, Feedback inhibition in this presentation so that it can be easy to understand the concept for viewers.
Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
1) The site (Organs and subcellular localization)
2) Reactions including High quality diagrams showing the reaction with structures.
3) Pathway regulation (Key enzymes and allosteric effectors shown clearly on the pathway with different colors and/or fonts) and hormonal regulation.
Lipids are fats that are either absorbed from food or synthesized by the liver. Triglycerides (TGs) and cholesterol contribute most to disease, although all lipids are physiologically important.
Cholesterol is a ubiquitous constituent of cell membranes, steroids, bile acids, and signaling molecules.
Triglycerides primarily store energy in adipocytes and muscle cells.
Lipoproteins are hydrophilic, spherical structures that possess surface proteins (apoproteins, or apolipoproteins) that are cofactors and ligands for lipid-processing enzymes (see table Major Apoproteins and Enzymes Important to Lipid Metabolism). All lipids are hydrophobic and mostly insoluble in blood, so they require transport within lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are classified by size and density (defined as the ratio of lipid to protein) and are important because high levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and low levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) are major risk factors for atherosclerotic heart disease.
Dyslipidemia is elevation of plasma cholesterol and/or triglycerides, or a low HDL cholesterol level that contributes to the development of atherosclerosis.
The NO2 group attached with organic chain is called as nitro functional group. All the compounds containing the nitro functional group are called as organic nitro compounds.
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
Synthesis of Salicylic Acid, Organic Synthesis
In this ppt competitive inhibition of enzymes is fully explained with its examples. it will be helpful for all the life science students. Non Competitive inhibition , Uncompetitive inhibition & Irreversible inhibition of Enzymes have been well explained in this presentation. it will be helpful for biochemistry, botany, zoology and other life/bio sciences students. I tried to explain Allosteric enzymes, their mechanism of action, Allosteric inhibition, Feedback inhibition in this presentation so that it can be easy to understand the concept for viewers.
Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
1) The site (Organs and subcellular localization)
2) Reactions including High quality diagrams showing the reaction with structures.
3) Pathway regulation (Key enzymes and allosteric effectors shown clearly on the pathway with different colors and/or fonts) and hormonal regulation.
Lipids are fats that are either absorbed from food or synthesized by the liver. Triglycerides (TGs) and cholesterol contribute most to disease, although all lipids are physiologically important.
Cholesterol is a ubiquitous constituent of cell membranes, steroids, bile acids, and signaling molecules.
Triglycerides primarily store energy in adipocytes and muscle cells.
Lipoproteins are hydrophilic, spherical structures that possess surface proteins (apoproteins, or apolipoproteins) that are cofactors and ligands for lipid-processing enzymes (see table Major Apoproteins and Enzymes Important to Lipid Metabolism). All lipids are hydrophobic and mostly insoluble in blood, so they require transport within lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are classified by size and density (defined as the ratio of lipid to protein) and are important because high levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and low levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) are major risk factors for atherosclerotic heart disease.
Dyslipidemia is elevation of plasma cholesterol and/or triglycerides, or a low HDL cholesterol level that contributes to the development of atherosclerosis.
De Novo Synthesis of fatty acids | Biosynthesis Of Fatty Acids |kiransharma204
This presentation contains De Novo Synthesis of fatty acids & Regulation of fatty acid synthesis
Books referred: https://www.amazon.in/Biochemistry-2019-Satyanarayana-Satyanarayana-Author/dp/B07WGHCTKZ/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&keywords=satyanarayan+books+biochemistry&qid=1590834248&sr=8-1
The digestion of certain fats begins in the mouth, where short-chain lipids break down into diglycerides because of lingual lipase. The fat present in the small intestine stimulates the release of lipase from the pancreas, and bile from the liver enables the breakdown of fats into fatty acids.
A lipid is chemically defined as a substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. Lipids are an important component of living cells. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant and animal cells. Cholesterol and triglycerides are lipids.
Plants synthesise a huge variety of fatty acids although only a few are major and common constituents . Broadly speaking, long-chain fatty acids are synthesised de novo from small precursors ultimately derived from photosynthate.
Fatty Acids are Aliphatic carboxylic acids and each animal species will have characteristic pattern of fatty acid composition. Thus, human body fat contains 50% oleic acid, 25% palmitic acid, 10% linoleic acid and 5% stearic acid.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
2. Fatty Acid Synthesis
• Occurs mainly in liver and adipocytes, in
mammary glands during lactation
• Occurs in cytoplasm
• FA synthesis and degradation occur by
two completely separate pathways
• When glucose is plentiful, large amounts
of acetyl CoA are produced by glycolysis
and can be used for fatty acid synthesis
3. Three stages of fatty acid
synthesis:
A. Transport of acetyl CoA into
cytosol
B. Carboxylation of acetyl CoA
C. Assembly of fatty acid chain
4. A. Transport of Acetyl CoA to
the Cytosol
• Acetyl CoA from catabolism of
carbohydrates and amino acids is
exported from mitochondria via the
citrate transport system
• Cytosolic NADH also converted to NADPH
• Two molecules of ATP are expended for
each round of this cyclic pathway
5. Sources of NADPH for Fatty Acid Synthesis
1. One molecule of NADPH is generated for each
molecule of acetyl CoA that is transferred from
mitochondria to the cytosol (malic enzyme).
2. NADPH molecules come from the pentose
phosphate pathway.
6. B. Carboxylation of Acetyl CoA
Enzyme: acetyl CoA carboxylase
Prosthetic group - biotin
A carboxybiotin intermediate is formed.
ATP is hydrolyzed.
The CO group in carboxybiotin is transferred to2
acetyl CoA to form malonyl CoA.
Acetyl CoA carboxylase is the regulatory enzyme.
7. C. The Reactions of Fatty Acid Synthesis
• Five separate stages:
(1) Loading of precursors via thioester
derivatives
(2) Condensation of the precursors
(3) Reduction
(4) Dehydration
(5) Reduction
8. During the fatty acid synthesis all intermediates are linked
to the protein called acyl carrier protein (ACP-SH), which
is the component of fatty acyl synthase complex.
The pantothenic acid is
a component of ACP.
Intermediates in the
biosynthetic pathway
are attached to the
sulfhydryl terminus of
phosphopantotheine
group.
9. The elongation phase of fatty acid synthesis starts with
the formation of acetyl ACP and malonyl ACP.
Acetyl transacylase and malonyl transacylase catalyze
these reactions.
Acetyl CoA + ACP ⇔ acetyl ACP + CoA
Malonyl CoA + ACP ⇔ malonyl ACP +
CoA
13. Reduction.
The final step in the cycle
reduces crotonyl ACP to
butyryl ACP.
NADPH is reductant.
Enzyme - enoyl ACP
reductase.
This is the end of first
elongation cycle (first
round).
14. In the second round
butyryl ACP condenses
with malonyl ACP to
form a C -β-ketoacyl6
ACP.
Reduction, dehydration,
and a second reduction
convert the C -β-6
ketoacyl ACP into a C -6
acyl ACP, which is ready
for a third round of
elongation.
15. Final reaction of FA synthesis
• Rounds of synthesis continue until a
C palmitoyl group is formed16
• Palmitoyl-ACP is hydrolyzed by a thioesterase
Overall reaction of palmitate synthesis from
acetyl CoA and malonyl CoA
Acetyl CoA + 7 Malonyl CoA + 14 NADPH + 14 H+
Palmitate + 7 CO + 14 NADP + 8 HS-CoA + 6 H O+
2 2
16. Organization of Multifunctional Enzyme
Complex in Eukaryotes
The synthase is dimer with antiparallel subunits.
Each subunit has three domains.
ACP is located in domain 2.
Domain 1 contains transacylases, ketoacyl-ACP
synthase (condensing enzyme)
Domain 2 contains acyl carrier protein, β-ketoacyl
reductase, dehydratase, and enoyl reductase.
Domain 3 contains thioesterase activity.
17.
18. Fatty Acid Elongation and Desaturation
The common product of fatty acid synthesis is
palmitate (16:0).
Cells contain longer fatty acids and unsaturated
fatty acids they are synthesized in the endoplasmic
reticulum.
The reactions of elongation are similar to the ones
seen with fatty acid synthase (new carbons are
added in the form of malonyl CoA).
For the formation of unsaturated fatty acids there
are various desaturases catalizing the formation of
double bonds.
19. THE CONTROL OF FATTY ACID METABOLISM
Acetyl CoA carboxylase plays an essential role
in regulating fatty acid synthesis and
degradation.
The carboxylase is controlled by hormones:
glucagon,
epinephrine, and
insulin.
Another regulatory factors:
citrate,
palmitoyl CoA, and
AMP
20. Global Regulation
is carried out by means of reversible phosphorylation
Acetyl CoA carboxylase is switched off by phosphorylation
and activated by dephosphorylation
Insulin stimulates fatty acid synthesis causing
dephosphorylation of carboxylase.
Glucagon and epinephrine have the reverse effect (keep the
carboxylase in the inactive phosphorylated state).
Protein kinase is
activated by AMP and
inhibited by ATP.
Carboxylase is
inactivated when the
energy charge is low.
21. Local Regulation
Acetyl CoA carboxylase is allosterically stimulated by
citrate.
The level of citrate is high when both acetyl CoA and ATP
are abundant (isocitrate dehydrogenase is inhibited by
ATP).
Palmitoyl CoA inhibits carboxylase.
22. Response to Diet
Fed state:
• Insulin level is increased
• Inhibits hydrolysis of stored TGs
• Stimulates formation of malonyl CoA, which inhibits
carnitine acyltransferase I
• FA remain in cytosol (FA oxidation enzymes are in the
mitochondria)
Starvation:
• Epinephrine and glucagon are produced and stimulate
adipose cell lipase and the level of free fatty acids rises
• Inactivate carboxylase, so decrease formation of malonyl
CoA (lead to increased transport of FA into mitochondria
and activate the b-oxidation pathway)
24. Synthesis of Triacylglycerols (TGs)
and Glycerophospholipids (GPLs)
Glycerol 3-phosphate can be obtained either by the
reduction of dihydroxyecetone phosphate (primarily) or
by the phosphorylation of glycerol (to a lesser extent).
25. Formation of phosphatidate
Two separate acyl transferases (AT) catalyze the
acylation of glycerol 3-phosphate.
The first AT (esterification at C1) has preference for
saturated fatty acids;
the second AT (esterification at C2) prefers
unsaturated fatty acids.
26. • Phosphatidic acid (phosphatidate) is an
common intermediate in the synthesis of
TGs and GPLs
Phosphatidate can be converted to two precursors:
- diacylglycerol (precursor for TGs and neutral
phospholipids) - cytidine diphosphodiacylglycerol (CDP-
diacylglycerol) (precursor for acidic phospholipids)
27. Synthesis of TGs and neutral phospholipids
Phospha-
tidyl-Triacyl-
glycerol
etha-
nolaminePhosphatidylcholine
29. Synthesis of neutral phospholipids
CDP-choline or CDP-ethanolamine are formed from
CTP by the reaction:
CTP + choline phosphate → CDP-choline + PPi
CTP + ethanolamine phosphate →
CDP-ethanolamine + PPi
Diacylglycerol react with CDP-choline or CDP-
ethanolamine to form phosphatidylcholine or
phosphatidylethanolamine
32. Phosphatidylinositol can be converted to phosphatidylinositol
4,5-biphosphate which is the precursor of the second
messenger inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate
