Ecosinoids
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Eicosanoids, from the Greek eicosa (“twenty”) are formed from precursor essential fatty acids that contain 20 carbons Eicosanoids and PAF lipids function as signaling molecules in many biological processes, including the regulation of vascular tone, renal function, hemostasis, parturition, GI mucosal integrity, and stem cell function. Eicosanoids are the most universally distributed autacoids in the body.Practically every cell and tissue is capable of synthesizing one or more types of PGs or LTs
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Eicosanoids
This document discusses eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules derived from fatty acids. Eicosanoids are classified into two main groups - prostanoids and leukotrienes/lipoxins. They are produced through the oxidation of fatty acids like arachidonic acid by enzymes like cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase. Eicosanoids play important roles in inflammation and other bodily processes through their effects on systems like the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
Eicosanoids
Eicosanoids are 20-carbon compounds derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid that act as local hormones. They include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes, which play important roles in inflammation and regulating other physiological processes. They are synthesized through the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways and have short lifespans, being quickly degraded. Eicosanoids function through G-protein coupled cell surface receptors and though potent, also have diverse tissue-specific actions.
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This document summarizes the biosynthesis and degradation of porphyrin and heme. It discusses how glycine and succinyl CoA are condensed to form δ-aminolevulinate, the starting material for porphyrin synthesis. Four molecules of porphobilinogen then condense to form the porphyrin ring. A series of reactions incorporates iron to form heme. Heme is degraded through heme oxygenase to form biliverdin and bilirubin, which is transported to the liver bound to albumin.
Eicosanoids MUHAMAD MUSTANSAR
This document discusses eicosanoids, a class of biologically active lipid compounds derived from 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid. It describes the biosynthesis of eicosanoids via three main pathways (cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase, cytochrome P450), their biological effects like inflammation and platelet aggregation, and examples of specific eicosanoids like prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins, and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids.
Fibrous proteinss
The document discusses fibrous proteins and collagen. It provides details on:
1) Fibrous proteins are usually insoluble and found in skin, connective tissue, blood vessels and other structures. They have high alpha-helix or beta-sheet content and examples include collagen, elastin, keratin and fibroin.
2) Collagen is the most abundant fibrous protein, making up 25-35% of the body's protein. It provides structure and strength, and there are at least 19 types designated by Roman numerals.
3) Collagen has a characteristic amino acid sequence of glycine-X-Y where X is often proline and Y can be hydroxyproline or hydroxy
Eocosanoids
Eicosanoids are physiologically active substances derived from 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids. They include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and others. Arachidonic acid is the most prevalent eicosanoid precursor in humans. Eicosanoids are produced by almost all mammalian cells and act as local messengers. They have diverse roles including inflammation, smooth muscle contraction, platelet aggregation, and reproductive functions. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit eicosanoid production.
Eicosanoids
A brief introduction, classification, synthesis, regulation & inhibition, biological functions and clinical applications of various eicosanoids like: prostaglandin, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins, arachidonic acid
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Proteoglycans are proteins that are heavily glycosylated*. The basic proteoglycan unit consists of a "core protein" with one or more covalently attached glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain(s).
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Eicosanoids
This document discusses eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules derived from fatty acids. Eicosanoids are classified into two main groups - prostanoids and leukotrienes/lipoxins. They are produced through the oxidation of fatty acids like arachidonic acid by enzymes like cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase. Eicosanoids play important roles in inflammation and other bodily processes through their effects on systems like the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
Eicosanoids
Eicosanoids are 20-carbon compounds derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid that act as local hormones. They include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes, which play important roles in inflammation and regulating other physiological processes. They are synthesized through the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways and have short lifespans, being quickly degraded. Eicosanoids function through G-protein coupled cell surface receptors and though potent, also have diverse tissue-specific actions.
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This document summarizes the biosynthesis and degradation of porphyrin and heme. It discusses how glycine and succinyl CoA are condensed to form δ-aminolevulinate, the starting material for porphyrin synthesis. Four molecules of porphobilinogen then condense to form the porphyrin ring. A series of reactions incorporates iron to form heme. Heme is degraded through heme oxygenase to form biliverdin and bilirubin, which is transported to the liver bound to albumin.
Eicosanoids MUHAMAD MUSTANSAR
This document discusses eicosanoids, a class of biologically active lipid compounds derived from 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid. It describes the biosynthesis of eicosanoids via three main pathways (cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase, cytochrome P450), their biological effects like inflammation and platelet aggregation, and examples of specific eicosanoids like prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins, and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids.
Fibrous proteinss
The document discusses fibrous proteins and collagen. It provides details on:
1) Fibrous proteins are usually insoluble and found in skin, connective tissue, blood vessels and other structures. They have high alpha-helix or beta-sheet content and examples include collagen, elastin, keratin and fibroin.
2) Collagen is the most abundant fibrous protein, making up 25-35% of the body's protein. It provides structure and strength, and there are at least 19 types designated by Roman numerals.
3) Collagen has a characteristic amino acid sequence of glycine-X-Y where X is often proline and Y can be hydroxyproline or hydroxy
Eocosanoids
Eicosanoids are physiologically active substances derived from 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids. They include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and others. Arachidonic acid is the most prevalent eicosanoid precursor in humans. Eicosanoids are produced by almost all mammalian cells and act as local messengers. They have diverse roles including inflammation, smooth muscle contraction, platelet aggregation, and reproductive functions. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit eicosanoid production.
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Ecosinoid metabolism
This document discusses the metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoids. It notes that animals have limited ability to desaturate fatty acids and require certain polyunsaturated fatty acids from plants. These essential fatty acids give rise to eicosanoic acids that produce eicosanoids like prostaglandins and leukotrienes. The metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids involves desaturase and elongase enzyme systems. Deficiencies in essential fatty acids can cause growth and reproductive issues in rats.
Eicosanoids- Chemistry and function
This document discusses eicosanoids, a class of biologically active lipid compounds that includes prostaglandins and leukotrienes. It notes that most eicosanoids are produced from arachidonic acid and classified into prostanoids, leukotrienes, and lipoxins. The document provides details on the synthesis and functions of various prostaglandins and thromboxanes, including their role in inflammation, smooth muscle contraction, kidney function, and other physiological processes. It also summarizes the synthesis and functions of leukotrienes and lipoxins.
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integration of metabolism
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covalent and electrostatic catalysis
This document discusses two types of enzyme catalysis: covalent and electrostatic. Covalent catalysis involves the transient formation of a covalent bond between an enzyme's nucleophilic group (such as an amino acid side chain) and an electrophilic group on the substrate. This is exemplified by the decarboxylation of acetoacetate through Schiff base formation with a lysine residue. Electrostatic catalysis enhances reaction rates through the arrangement of charged groups within the enzyme's active site to stabilize transition states. The local low dielectric environment of the active site strengthens electrostatic interactions.
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INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM
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Leukotrienes are inflammatory mediators produced from the oxidation of arachidonic acid by leukocytes, mast cells, and macrophages. They are produced in response to immunological and non-immunological stimuli. There are two main types of leukotrienes - leukotriene B4, which is a chemoattractant for neutrophils, and cysteinyl leukotrienes (LTC4, LTD4, LTE4), which are produced by mast cells and eosinophils and cause bronchoconstriction. Leukotrienes exert their effects through G-protein coupled receptors and trigger intracellular signaling cascades involving phospholipase C and increases in intracellular calcium. They
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Suicide inhibitors
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Enzyme regulation zymogen
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JAK STAT SIGNALLING PATHWAY
The JAK-STAT signaling pathway transmits signals from extracellular chemical signals to the cell nucleus, which leads to DNA transcription and cellular activity. It consists of receptors, Janus kinases (JAKs), and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs). When ligands bind to receptors, JAKs phosphorylate themselves and STATs, causing STAT dimers to enter the nucleus and promote transcription. Disrupted JAK-STAT signaling can cause immune deficiency and cancer. Drugs targeting JAK-STAT are used to reduce immune response and treat disorders like cancer and rheumatoid arthritis.
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COVALENT MODIFICATION AND ZYMOGEN ACTIVATION
1) Covalent modifications, both reversible and irreversible, play important roles in regulating enzyme function. Reversible modifications like phosphorylation fine-tune enzyme activity, while irreversible proteolysis activates zymogens into active enzymes.
2) Digestive enzymes like trypsinogen are synthesized as inactive zymogens to avoid unwanted catalysis, then activated through limited and specific proteolysis. This proteolysis removes inhibitory peptide sequences and allows catalytic activity.
3) Activation of zymogens through proteolytic cascades amplifies hormonal signals, allowing a small stimulus to elicit a large response. This cascade activation greatly increases the potency and efficiency of regulation compared to direct hormone binding.
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POLYAMINES
This document discusses polyamine synthesis and metabolism. It notes that ornithine and S-adenosylmethionine are precursors for polyamine synthesis. Ornithine decarboxylase converts ornithine to putrescine, and putrescine is then converted to spermidine and spermine with involvement of S-adenosylmethionine and decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine. Polyamine oxidase can break down polyamines by oxidizing spermine to spermidine and putrescine, which are then excreted. Polyamines are involved in nucleic acid and protein synthesis.
Cyclic amp pathway
Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr. discovered cyclic AMP (cAMP) as a second messenger that allows hormones like epinephrine to trigger physiological responses in cells. cAMP is produced from ATP by adenylate cyclase in response to hormone binding and activates protein kinase A. Protein kinase A then phosphorylates other proteins to initiate downstream cellular effects. The actions of cAMP are terminated by phosphodiesterase breaking it down and by dephosphorylation of proteins. cAMP mediates many important processes like glycogen breakdown and gene transcription.
Glycoproteins
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain carbohydrate chains covalently attached. They can be O-linked, N-linked or GPI-anchored. Glycoproteins play important structural and functional roles like cell adhesion and acting as receptors. They are synthesized through a complex process in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Congenital disorders of glycosylation can occur from mutations affecting glycoprotein synthesis. Blood groups are also determined by glycoproteins on red blood cell surfaces.
Bisubstrate reactions enzyme kinetics
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Arachidonic acid metabolites ppt pdf
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Ecosinoid metabolism
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This document discusses eicosanoids, a class of biologically active lipid compounds that includes prostaglandins and leukotrienes. It notes that most eicosanoids are produced from arachidonic acid and classified into prostanoids, leukotrienes, and lipoxins. The document provides details on the synthesis and functions of various prostaglandins and thromboxanes, including their role in inflammation, smooth muscle contraction, kidney function, and other physiological processes. It also summarizes the synthesis and functions of leukotrienes and lipoxins.
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integration of metabolism
The integration of metabolism ensures a constant supply of fuel to all tissues. Metabolic pathways are controlled through four mechanisms: substrate availability, allosteric effectors, covalent modification of enzymes, and regulation of enzyme synthesis. During the absorptive state after a meal, elevated insulin and substrate availability promote anabolism through increased storage of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in liver, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle. In the fasting state, glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and ketogenesis in the liver to maintain blood glucose levels while fatty acids are oxidized in other tissues.
covalent and electrostatic catalysis
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INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM
This document summarizes various metabolic pathways including glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation, amino acid degradation, the citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, the hexose monophosphate shunt, gluconeogenesis, and glycogen metabolism. It also describes how these pathways are regulated and integrated in the liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and brain in both the fed and starved states to meet energy demands and fuel needs of the body.
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Suicide inhibitors
This document discusses suicide inhibitors, which are a type of irreversible enzyme inhibitor. Suicide inhibitors initially bind to the active site of an enzyme like a normal substrate. However, they are then modified by the enzyme into a highly reactive compound that covalently binds to and permanently inactivates the enzyme. This removes the enzyme from the system. Examples of suicide inhibitors discussed include allopurinol, 5-fluorouracil, aspirin, penicillin, and various antiviral and antituberculosis drugs.
Enzyme regulation zymogen
This document discusses enzyme regulation and the roles of cofactors and vitamins in enzyme function. It explains that enzymes are regulated through genetic control, covalent modification, and feedback inhibition. Coenzymes, which include vitamins and metal ions, are required for many enzyme reactions. Deficiencies in water-soluble vitamins can result since they are not stored, while fat-soluble vitamin excesses can be toxic. The roles of specific vitamins as coenzymes are outlined.
JAK STAT SIGNALLING PATHWAY
The JAK-STAT signaling pathway transmits signals from extracellular chemical signals to the cell nucleus, which leads to DNA transcription and cellular activity. It consists of receptors, Janus kinases (JAKs), and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs). When ligands bind to receptors, JAKs phosphorylate themselves and STATs, causing STAT dimers to enter the nucleus and promote transcription. Disrupted JAK-STAT signaling can cause immune deficiency and cancer. Drugs targeting JAK-STAT are used to reduce immune response and treat disorders like cancer and rheumatoid arthritis.
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COVALENT MODIFICATION AND ZYMOGEN ACTIVATION
1) Covalent modifications, both reversible and irreversible, play important roles in regulating enzyme function. Reversible modifications like phosphorylation fine-tune enzyme activity, while irreversible proteolysis activates zymogens into active enzymes.
2) Digestive enzymes like trypsinogen are synthesized as inactive zymogens to avoid unwanted catalysis, then activated through limited and specific proteolysis. This proteolysis removes inhibitory peptide sequences and allows catalytic activity.
3) Activation of zymogens through proteolytic cascades amplifies hormonal signals, allowing a small stimulus to elicit a large response. This cascade activation greatly increases the potency and efficiency of regulation compared to direct hormone binding.
Eicosanoids
This document summarizes the biosynthesis, receptors, and pharmacological actions of eicosanoids including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, prostacyclins, and leukotrienes. It describes that these molecules are derived from arachidonic acid and produced via the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways. The document outlines the different receptors for each eicosanoid class and their downstream signaling effects. It also provides details on the physiological and pathological roles of eicosanoids in various organ systems such as the cardiovascular, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, renal and immune systems.
POLYAMINES
This document discusses polyamine synthesis and metabolism. It notes that ornithine and S-adenosylmethionine are precursors for polyamine synthesis. Ornithine decarboxylase converts ornithine to putrescine, and putrescine is then converted to spermidine and spermine with involvement of S-adenosylmethionine and decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine. Polyamine oxidase can break down polyamines by oxidizing spermine to spermidine and putrescine, which are then excreted. Polyamines are involved in nucleic acid and protein synthesis.
Cyclic amp pathway
Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr. discovered cyclic AMP (cAMP) as a second messenger that allows hormones like epinephrine to trigger physiological responses in cells. cAMP is produced from ATP by adenylate cyclase in response to hormone binding and activates protein kinase A. Protein kinase A then phosphorylates other proteins to initiate downstream cellular effects. The actions of cAMP are terminated by phosphodiesterase breaking it down and by dephosphorylation of proteins. cAMP mediates many important processes like glycogen breakdown and gene transcription.
Glycoproteins
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain carbohydrate chains covalently attached. They can be O-linked, N-linked or GPI-anchored. Glycoproteins play important structural and functional roles like cell adhesion and acting as receptors. They are synthesized through a complex process in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Congenital disorders of glycosylation can occur from mutations affecting glycoprotein synthesis. Blood groups are also determined by glycoproteins on red blood cell surfaces.
Bisubstrate reactions enzyme kinetics
This document discusses two types of bisubstrate reactions: sequential or single-displacement reactions and ping-pong or double-displacement reactions. Sequential reactions involve both substrates binding to the enzyme before products are released, and can be ordered or random. Ping-pong reactions involve one substrate binding and being modified, then releasing one product before the second substrate binds and the second product is released, regenerating the original enzyme. Examples of each type of reaction are provided to illustrate the mechanisms.
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Chemotherapy, Aminoglycosides, cellular mediators, Allergy (hypertension) and...
Chemotherapy uses powerful chemicals to kill fast-growing cancer cells. It works by targeting cells that multiply quickly. Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics that kill bacteria by interfering with protein production. They have side effects like hearing loss and kidney damage. Inflammation is mediated by cellular and plasma factors called biomediators that increase vascular permeability. These include histamine, cytokines, and components of the complement system. Allergy is an immune response triggered by IgE antibodies binding to an allergen and activating mast cells. This causes symptoms through the release of inflammatory mediators.
Mediators of inflammation
This document discusses the various mediators of inflammation. It describes how mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, cytokines, and complement proteins are produced and regulate inflammatory reactions. It also outlines the key roles these mediators play in increasing vascular permeability, recruiting immune cells, and initiating other inflammatory responses. Finally, it examines the morphological patterns of acute inflammation including serous, fibrinous, purulent inflammation and abscess formation, as well as ulcers.
Prostaglandins.docx
Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, angiotensin, bradykinin, and substance P are biologically active lipid mediators that play important roles in inflammation and other physiological processes. Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are derived from arachidonic acid and function as autacoids. Angiotensin is derived from angiotensinogen and regulates blood pressure and sodium balance. Bradykinin is formed from kininogens and causes vasodilation. Substance P functions as a neurotransmitter and mediates pain, inflammation, and vasodilation. These mediators act through G-protein coupled receptors and have diverse effects in various organ systems.
EICOSONOIDS METABOLISM FOR MBBS, LAB. MED.BDS.pptx
The principal eicosanoids of biological significance to humans are a group of molecules derived from the 20:4 (20 carbons: 4 sites of unsaturation) fatty acid, arachidonic acid.
Concepts endocrines system.ppt
The document discusses the endocrine system and cell-to-cell communication via hormones. There are three main types of chemical signals used: 1) peptide hormones that bind to cell membrane receptors and use secondary messengers; 2) steroid hormones that enter cells and directly affect gene expression; and 3) amino acid-derived hormones that use secondary messengers. The hypothalamus monitors conditions and signals the pituitary gland if changes are needed, and the pituitary signals other endocrine glands. Major glands discussed include the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, gonads, and others. Hormones maintain homeostasis by regulating processes such as metabolism, growth, stress response, reproduction, and more.
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Eicosanoids (prostaglandin, thromboxanes, leukotrienes)
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Stereochemistry
Stereochemistry is the systematic presentation of a specific field of science and technology that traditionally requires a short preliminary excursion into history. Stereochemistry is the ‘chemistry of space ‘, that is stereochemistry deals with the spatial arrangements of atoms and groups in a molecule.
Stereochemistry can trace its roots to the year 1842 when the French chemist Louis Pasteur made an observation that the salts of tartaric acid collected from a wine production vessel have the ability to rotate plane-polarized light, whereas the same salts from different sources did not have this ability. This phenomenon is explained by optical isomerism.
Artificial Intelligence in Diabetes Care
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a fast-growing field and its applications to diabetes, a global pandemic, can reform the approach to diagnosis and management of this chronic condition. Principles of machine learning have been used to build algorithms to support predictive models for the risk of developing diabetes or its consequent complications.
Infectious Disease by Gopal Khodve.pptx
Infectious diseases are disorders caused by organisms — such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. Many organisms live in and on our bodies. They're normally harmless or even helpful. But under certain conditions, some organisms may cause disease.
Some infectious diseases can be passed from person to person. Some are transmitted by insects or other animals. And you may get others by consuming contaminated food or water or being exposed to organisms in the environment.
Signs and symptoms vary depending on the organism causing the infection, but often include fever and fatigue. Mild infections may respond to rest and home remedies, while some life-threatening infections may need hospitalization.
Many infectious diseases, such as measles and chickenpox, can be prevented by vaccines. Frequent and thorough hand-washing also helps protect you from most infectious diseases.
What are infectious diseases?
Infectious diseases are illnesses caused by harmful organisms (pathogens) that get into your body from the outside. Pathogens that cause infectious diseases are viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites and, rarely, prions. You can get infectious diseases from other people, bug bites and contaminated food, water or soil.
What’s the difference between infectious diseases and noninfectious diseases?
Infectious diseases are caused by harmful organisms that get into your body from the outside, like viruses and bacteria. Noninfectious diseases aren’t caused by outside organisms, but by genetics, anatomical differences, getting older and the environment you live in. You can’t get noninfectious diseases from other people, by getting a bug bite or from your food.
The flu, measles, HIV, strep throat, COVID-19 and salmonella are all examples of infectious diseases. Cancer, diabetes, congestive heart failure and Alzheimer’s disease are all examples of noninfectious diseases.
What are the types of infectious diseases?
Infectious diseases can be viral, bacterial, parasitic or fungal infections. There’s also a rare group of infectious diseases known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs).
Viral infections. Viruses are a piece of information (DNA or RNA) inside of a protective shell (capsid). Viruses are much smaller than your cells and have no way to reproduce on their own. They get inside your cells and use your cells’ machinery to make copies of themselves.
Bacterial infections. Bacteria are single-celled organisms with their instructions written on a small piece of DNA. Bacteria are all around us, including inside of our body and on our skin. Many bacteria are harmless or even helpful, but certain bacteria release toxins that can make you sick.
Fungal infections. Like bacteria, there are many different fungi. They live on and in your body. When your fungi get overgrown or when harmful fungi get into your body through your mouth, your nose or a cut in your skin, you can get sick.
Parasitic infections.
Ai in diabetes management
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a fast-growing field and its applications to diabetes, a global pandemic, can reform the approach to diagnosis and management of this chronic condition. Principles of machine learning have been used to build algorithms to support predictive models for the risk of developing diabetes or its consequent complications. Digital therapeutics have proven to be an established intervention for lifestyle therapy in the management of diabetes. Patients are increasingly being empowered for self-management of diabetes, and both patients and health care professionals are benefitting from clinical decision support. AI allows a continuous and burden-free remote monitoring of the patient's symptoms and biomarkers. Further, social media and online communities enhance patient engagement in diabetes care. Technical advances have helped to optimize resource use in diabetes. Together, these intelligent technical reforms have produced better glycemic control with reductions in fasting and postprandial glucose levels, glucose excursions, and glycosylated hemoglobin. AI will introduce a paradigm shift in diabetes care from conventional management strategies to building targeted data-driven precision care.
Blood test normal values and it's importance
Laboratory tests check a sample of your blood, urine, or body tissues. A technician or your doctor analyzes the test samples to see if your results fall within the normal range. The tests use a range because what is normal differs from person to person. Many factors affect test results. These include
Your sex, age and race
What you eat and drink
Medicines you take
How well you followed pre-test instructions
Your doctor may also compare your results to results from previous tests. Laboratory tests are often part of a routine checkup to look for changes in your health. They also help doctors diagnose medical conditions, plan or evaluate treatments, and monitor diseases.
Oecd 541 guidelines
This document outlines the OECD guidelines for carcinogenicity testing. It discusses the objectives of carcinogenicity studies which include identifying carcinogenic properties, target organs, time to appearance of neoplasms, and establishing a no-observed-adverse-effect level. It describes the typical procedure which involves administering the test substance daily to rodents and observing them for signs of toxicity and tumor development. Key aspects covered are test animals, dose levels, duration of study, observations, pathology examination, and reporting of results and test conditions.
Angina Pectoris
Angina pectoris is the medical term for chest pain or discomfort due to coronary heart disease. It occurs when the heart muscle doesn't get as much blood as it needs. This usually happens because one or more of the heart's arteries is narrowed or blocked, also called ischemia.
ELISA TEST
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a very sensitive immunochemical technique which is used to access the presence of specific protein (antigen or antibody) in the given sample and it’s quantification.
It is also called solid-phase enzyme immunoassay as it employs an enzyme linked antigen or antibody as a marker for the detection of specific protein.
ELISA has been used as a diagnostic tool in medicine, plant pathology and in the food industry as a quality control check.
Isolation of enzyme and their assay
Ureases (EC 3.5.1.5), functionally, belong to the superfamily of amidohydrolases and phosphodiesterase.
Nickel containing metalloenzyme.
Ureases are found in numerous bacteria, fungi, algae, plants, and some invertebrates, as well as in soils, as a soil enzyme.
Not synthesized by animals.
James B. Sumner in 1926, Noble Prize in Chemistry in 1946.
Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to from ammonia and
Carbon dioxide
Upper Respiratory Tract Infections
A variety of viruses and bacteria can cause upper respiratory tract infections including acute bronchitis, the common cold, influenza, and respiratory distress syndromes.
• Defining most of these patient diseases is difficult because the presentations connected with upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) commonly overlap and their causes are similar.
• Upper respiratory tract infections can be defined as self-limited irritation and swelling of the upper airways with associated cough with no proof of pneumonia, lacking a separate condition to account for the patient symptoms, or with no history of COPD/emphysema/chronic bronchitis. Influenza Viruses
• Small hairs (cilia) in the sinuses fail to properly move mucus out. This may be due to some medical conditions.
• Colds and allergies may cause too much mucus to be made or block the opening of the sinuses.
• A deviated nasal septum, nasal bone spur, or nasal polyps may block the opening of the sinuses.
Why should you do the Skin Prick Test?
SPT is an essential test procedure to find sensitization in IgE-mediated allergic disease in subjects with Hay fever (allergic rhinitis), asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis, Dermatitis (eczema), anapylaxis, urticaria, atopic eczema and food and drug allergy.
Procedure for skin prick test
This is not a painful test. A needle(lancet) is used to prick your skin during the test which is not at all painful or you lose any blood. Follow are the steps of the test.
• Your skin is cleaned by alcohol
• A nurse/technician marked your skin and put a drop of allergen beside every mark
• Using a lancet the technician pricks your skin to allow a tiny amount of the solution to enter just below the surface
• Now you should wait for a specific amount of time. Usually 30 min.
• Now your allergist checks the marks for a observes your skin for signs of allergic reactions. If you are allergic to one of the substances tested, you’ll develop a raised, red, itchy bump (wheal) that may look like a mosquito bite. A nurse will then measure the bump’s size.
• After the recording of the result, the nurse/technician clean your testing surface with alcohol
Nanomedicine
THE FUTURE OF NANOMEDINE
Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of nanomaterials and biological devices, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology such as biological machines. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of nanoscale materials (materials whose structure is on the scale of nanometers, i.e. billionths of a meter).
Biosensors
A biosensor is a device that converts a biological response into an electrical signal. The first true biosensor was developed in 1956 by Leland C. Clark, Jr. for oxygen detection, making him the "father of biosensors". Biosensors can be used for general healthcare monitoring, disease screening and diagnosis, veterinary and agricultural applications, industrial processing, and environmental monitoring. They have advantages like rapid measurement, high specificity, and low reagent usage but also disadvantages such as sensitivity to temperature, pH, and patient distrust. The biosensor market is expected to reach $52.5 billion by 2020 due to advancements that are changing how health and technology companies approach monitoring capabilities.
Anti parkinsonian drugs
Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that mostly affects older people. It was first described by James Parkinson in 1817. The most consistent lesion in Parkinson's disease is the degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra and dopaminergic tract, leading to a deficiency of dopamine in the striatum which controls muscle tone and movement coordination. Symptoms include tremors, rigid muscles, bradykinesia, hallucinations, postural instability, and neuroplasticity. Risk factors include age, genetics, free radicals, and environmental toxins. Diagnosis involves physical examination, MRI, CT scan, and DaT scan. Levodopa is the primary treatment as it increases dopamine levels in the
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Physiology of Chemical Sensation of smell.pdf
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Ecosinoids
- 1. By Gopal Khodve & Amar Dhiman Eicosanoids 1
- 2. Eicosaniods • Eicosanoids, from the Greek eicosa (“twenty”) are formed from precursor essential fatty acids that contain 20 carbons • Eicosanoids and PAF lipids function as signaling molecules in many biological processes, including the regulation of vascular tone, renal function, hemostasis, parturition, GI mucosal integrity, and stem cell function. • Eicosanoids are the most universally distributed autacoids in the body. Practically every cell and tissue is capable of synthesizing one or more types of PGs or LTs 2
- 3. Major Classes of Eicosanoids Prostaglandins Thromboxanes Prostacyclins Leukotrienes 3
- 4. 4 Major Classes of Eicosanoids Prostaglandins are a group of lipids made at sites of tissue damage or infection that are involved in dealing with injury and illness. They control processes such as inflammation, blood flow, the formation of blood clots and the induction of labour. Leukotrienes are a molecules, formed by leukocytes, mastocytoma cells, macrophages, and other tissues and cells in response to immunological and nonimmunological stimuli. They exhibit a number of biological effects such as contraction of bronchial smooth muscles, stimulation of vascular permeability. Thromboxane A2 (TxA2) is in the family of lipids known as eicosanoids, which are metabolites of arachidonic acid generated by the sequential action of three enzymes – phospholipase A2, COX-1/COX- 2 and TxA2 Synthase (TXAS) . Ecosinoids Prostacyclin (PGI2) is produced from epithelial cells via COX-2 synthesis and inhibits platelet aggregation and causes vasodilation. Prostacyclin is a circulating hormone continually released by the lungs into the arterial circulation
- 5. • There are multiple subfamilies of eicosanoids, including the prostaglandin,prostacyclins, thromboxanes, lipoxins, and leukotrienes. • For each, there are two or three separate series, derived from either an ω-3 or an ω-6 EFA. • In these series different activities largely explain the health effects of ω-3 and ω-6 fats Sub –Families of Eicosanoids 5
- 6. Silent • Mainly in inflammation or immunity • As messengers in the central nervous system. They are found in most living things. • In humans, eicosanoids are local hormones that are released by most cells, act on that same cell or nearby cells (i.e., they are autocrine and paracrine mediators), and then are rapidly inactivated • Eicosanoids have a short half-life, ranging from seconds to minutes. • Dietary antioxidants inhibit the generation of some inflammatory eicosanoids, e.g. trans-resveratrol against thromboxane and some leukotrienes. • Most eicosanoid receptors are members of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily Salient features of Eicosanoids 6
- 7. • Induction of inflammation • Mediation of pain signals • Induction of fever • Smooth muscle contraction (including uterus) • Smooth muscle relaxation • Protection of stomach lining • Stimulation of platelet aggregation • Inhibition of platelet aggregation • Sodium and water retention Effects of Eicosanoids 7
- 8. Synthesis of Eicosanoids • Eicosanoids are not stored within cells, but are synthesized as required. • They are derived from the fatty acids that make up the cell membrane and nuclear membrane • Eicosanoid biosynthesis begins when a cell is activated by mechanical trauma, cytokines, growth factors or other stimuli. • This triggers the release of a phospholipase at the cell membrane. • The phospholipase travels to the nuclear membrane. 8 Mechanical trauma cytokines, growth factors Arachidonic acid
- 9. Eicosanoid biosynthesis begins when a cell is activated by mechanical trauma, cytokines, growth factors or other stimuli 9
- 10. Formation Of Eicosanoids From Arachidonic Acid 10 Phospholipid
- 11. Pathways for Arachidonic Acid Metabolism Arachidonic acid Cyclo-oxygenase Pathway PGG2 Prostaglandins Thromboxanes lipoxygenase Pathway HPETE Leukotrienes Lipoxins HETE 11 5-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid
- 12. 12 Immune activation & inflammatory mediators Pain,Redness,Swelling
- 13. Anti inflammatory Drugs inhibit Eicosanoids Synthesis Leukotrienes Prostaglandins, thromboxanes NSAIDs Membrane lipids Arachidonic Acid Steroids Phospholipase A2 13 LOX Inhibitors
- 14. DRUGS ACTING ON EICOSANOIDS 14
- 15. References Antithrombotic Trialists’ Collaboration, et al. Aspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease: collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised trials. Lancet, 2009, 373:1849–1860. Arehart E, et al. Acceleration of cardiovascular disease by a dysfunctional prostacyclin receptor mutation: potential implications for cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition. Circ Res, 2008, 102:986–993. Bjornsson ES, et al. Incidence, presentation, and outcomes in patients with drug-induced liver injury in the general population of Iceland. Gastroenterology, 2013, 144:1419–1425, 1425, e1411–e1413; quiz e1419–e1420. Blieden M, et al. A perspective on the epidemiology of acetaminophen exposure and toxicity in the United States. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol, 2014, 7:341–348 15