- Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. They include sugars, starches, and fiber. - Sugars can be simple monosaccharides like glucose or combined to form more complex disaccharides and polysaccharides. - Carbohydrates exist as both linear chains and ring structures. The ring form is favored in water. - Carbohydrates serve as the primary energy source for the body but excess consumption can contribute to obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.

1. Carbohydrates
5/12/2010

2. What are carbohydrates food?
• Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for
the body.
• Those carbohydrates come from the plant-
based foods that we eat.
• We can either use carbohydrates right away for
your energy needs or your body can convert
them into fat to use later.
• There are three types of carbohydrates: - sugars,
starches and fiber.

3. Chemistry of carbohydrate
• No matter how big they are, all carbohydrates are
made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the
general formula of Cm(H2O)n.
• Or The empirical or simplest formula of any
carbohydrate is (CH2O)n.
• This formula looks like carbon water just as
carbohydrate suggests hydrated or watered carbon.
• The formula tells us that all carbohydrates are made
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1
ratio.

4. For example, a simple little sugar
molecule like glucose is made up
of six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen
atoms and 6 oxygen atoms.
It is shaped like a hexagon and has
the formula C6(H2O)6.
D-glucose

5. • A large starch
molecule can be made
of many little sugar
molecules attached
together, which forms
a long chain.
• The little m and n in
our general formula,
Cm(H2O)n, can run into
the hundreds.

6. Simple sugars
• are little molecules made up of
one or two sugar units.
• In nutrition, the most basic
simple sugar is glucose, C6(H2O)6,
and it is the type of sugar our
bodies and brains use for energy
every day.
• Glucose is called a
monosaccharide, which means
D-glucose "single sugar.“.

7. • Other monosaccharides include
fructose, galactose, and ribose.
• Fructose is found in fruits and
in vegetables.
fructose • Galactose is found in milk and
• Ribose is best known as a
component in ribonucleic acid,
which is a part of genetic
transcription and is found in the
cells in our bodies.

8. • it is important to know that the single
sugars glucose, fructose and galactose
can form different combinations to
become disaccharides, a term that
means "two sugars." These sugars
include:
• Lactose (milk sugar) .
• Sucrose (table sugar).
• Maltose (malt sugar).

9. • Lactose (milk sugar)
is made up of
glucose and
galactose molecules.
People who are
"lactose intolerant"
can't digest this
sugar properly.

10. • sucrose:-
• is comprised of
glucose and fructose
molecules.
• This is the white
powdery or granular
substance we
typically refer to as
"sugar" when we are
cooking or baking.

11. • Maltose (malt sugar) is
produced during the
malting of cereals such
as barley.

12. • An average healthy diet should have half of
your daily calories coming from
carbohydrates.
• One gram of carbohydrate, whether is it is
sugar or starch, contains 4 calories. One slice
of bread has about 12 -15 grams of
carbohydrates.
• One typical chocolate bar may have about 50
grams of carbohydrates.
• A medium potato has about 35 grams of
carbohydrates.

13. • Simple sugars are water-soluble and
sucrose, or table sugar, is easy to digest.
• The individual glucose and fructose
molecules are quickly absorbed into the
bloodstream via the small intestine.
• This can be a problem for people with
diabetes or metabolic syndrome who
have to watch their blood sugar, or
blood glucose levels.

14. Chemistry of carbohydrate
• No matter how big they are, all carbohydrates are
made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the
general formula of Cm(H2O)n.
• Or The empirical or simplest formula of any
carbohydrate is (CH2O)n.
• This formula looks like carbon water just as
carbohydrate suggests hydrated or watered carbon.
• The formula tells us that all carbohydrates are made
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1
ratio.

15. Sumary
• Carbohydrates consist of the elements carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) with a ratio of hydrogen twice
that of carbon and oxygen.
• Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, cellulose and many
other compounds found in living organisms.
• In their basic form, carbohydrates are simple sugars or
monosaccharides.
• These simple sugars can combine with each other to form
more complex carbohydrates.
• The combination of two simple sugars is a disaccharide.
• Carbohydrates consisting of two to ten simple sugars are
called oligosaccharides,
• and those with a larger number are called polysaccharides.

16. • These simple sugars can combine with
each other to form more complex
carbohydrates.
• The combination of two simple sugars is
a disaccharide.
• Carbohydrates consisting of two to ten
simple sugars are called
oligosaccharides,( Oligo = Few) (2- 10 C)
• and those with a larger number are
called polysaccharides

17. Sugars
• Sugars are white crystalline
carbohydrates that are soluble in water
and generally have a sweet taste.
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars

18. • Many saccharide structures differ only
in the orientation of the hydroxyl groups
(-OH).
• This slight structural difference makes a
big difference in the biochemical
properties, organoleptic properties
(e.g., taste), and in the physical
properties such as melting point and
Specific Rotation (how polarized light is
distorted).

19. • A chain form
monosaccharides that
has a carbonyl group
(c=o) on an end carbon
forming an aldehyde
group (-CHO) is
classified as an aldos
• When the Carbonyl
An aldehyde.
R is the group attached to the blue aldehyde
group is on an inner
group atom forming a ketone
, is called as a ketenes
Formaldehyde, the simplest aldehyde
ketenes

20. • Physical Properties of sucrose (table sugar). It is
a simple sugar (although not a monosaccharide).
Monosaccharides and other smaller sugars have
the following properties in common with
sucrose:
1. They are colorless crystalline solids. They
usually appear white.
2. They are soluble in water (why?), only slightly
soluble in ethanol and insoluble in nonpolar
compounds.
3. They taste sweet. However, each sugar has its
own distinct flavor.
4. Most are optically active ‫نشطة ضوئيا‬

21. • Sugar contains 4carbons is called =tetroses
• Sugar contains 5 carbons is called =pentoses
• Sugar contains 6carbons is called =hexoses
• Sugar contains 7carbons is called =heptoses

22. Monosaccharide classifications based on the number of carbons

23. Tetroses
D-Threose
D-Erythrose

24. Pentose
D-Ribose D-Arabinose
D-Xylose D-Lyxose

25. • The ring form of ribose is a
component of
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Deoxyribose, which is
missing an oxygen at
Ribose position 2, is a component
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• In nucleic acids, the
hydroxyl group attached to
carbon number 1 is replaced
with nucleotide bases.
Deoxyribose

26. Hexoses
• Hexoses, such as the ones illustrated
here, have the molecular formula
C6H12O6.

27. D-Allose D-Altrose D-Glucose D-Mannose
D-Idose D-Talose
D-Galactose

28. • Structures that have
opposite configurations of
a hydroxyl group at only
D-Tagatose(a ketose) D-Fructose
one position, such as
glucose and mannose, are
called epimers.
• Glucose, also called
Fructose
dextrose, is the most
Galactose
widely distributed sugar
in the plant and animal
kingdoms and it is the
sugar present in blood as
Mannose
"blood sugar".

29. • The chain form of
glucose is a polyhydric
aldehyde, meaning
that it has multiple
hydroxyl groups and an
aldehyde group.
• Fructose, also called
levulose or "fruit
D-Fructose sugar", is shown here
in the chain and ring
forms.
• Fructose and glucose
are the main
carbohydrate
constituents of honey.
Fructose

30. Heptoses
• Sedoheptulose has
the same structure
as fructose, but it
has one extra
carbon.
Sedoheptulose

31. Chain and Ring forms
• Many simple
sugars can exist in
a chain form or a
ring form, as
illustrated by the
hexoses above.
• The ring form is
favored in
aqueous
solutions, and the
mechanism of ring
formation is
similar for most
sugars.

32. • The glucose ring form is
created when the
oxygen on carbon
number 5 links with the
carbon comprising the
carbonyl group (carbon
number 1) and transfers
its hydrogen to the
carbonyl oxygen to
create a hydroxyl group.
• The rearrangement
produces alpha glucose
when the hydroxyl
group is on the opposite
side of the -CH2OH
group

33. • or beta glucose when the hydroxyl group is
on the same side as the -CH2OH group.
Isomers, such as these, which differ only in
their configuration about their carbonyl
carbon atom are called anomers.
• The little D in the name derives from the fact
that natural glucose is dextrorotary, i.e., it
rotates polarized light to the right
• Those forming six-sided rings, like glucose,
are called pyranoses.

35. Stereochemistry
• Saccharides with identical functional groups but
with different spatial configurations have different
chemical and biological properties.
• Stereochemistry is the study of the arrangement of
atoms in three-dimensional space.
• Stereoisomers are compounds in which the atoms
are linked in the same order but differ in their
spatial arrangement.
• Compounds that are mirror images of each other
but are not identical, comparable to left and right
shoes, are called enantiomers.

37. Sugar Alcohols, Amino Sugars, and
Uronic Acids
• Sugars may be modified by natural or
laboratory processes into compounds that
retain the basic configuration of
saccharides, but have different functional
groups.
• Sugar alcohols, also known as polyols,
polyhydric alcohols, or polyalcohols, are the
hydrogenated forms of the aldoses or
ketoses.

38. • For example, glucitol, also known as sorbitol,
has the same linear structure as the chain
form of glucose, but the aldehyde (-CHO)
group is replaced with a -CH2OH group.
• Other common sugar alcohols include the
monosaccharides erythritol and xylitol and
the disaccharides lactitol and maltitol.
• Sugar alcohols have about half the calories of
sugars and are frequently used in low-calorie
or "sugar-free" products.

39. • Xylitol, which has the hydroxyl groups
oriented like xylose, is a very common
ingredient in "sugar-free" candies and
gums because it is approximately as
sweet as sucrose, but contains 40% less
food energy.
• Although this sugar alcohol appears to
be safe for humans, xylitol in relatively
small doses can cause seizures, liver
failure, and death in dogs.

40. Amino sugars
• or aminosaccharides
replace a hydroxyl
group with an amino
(-NH2) group.
Glucosamine is an
amino sugar used to
treat cartilage damage
and reduce the pain
and progression of
arthritis.

41. Uronic acids
• have a carboxyl group (-
COOH) on the carbon that
is not part of the ring. Their
names retain the root of
the monosaccharides, but
the -ose sugar suffix is
changed to -uronic acid. For
example, galacturonic acid
has the same configuration
as galactose, and the
structure of glucuronic acid
corresponds to glucose

42. •
Sugar and Cotton
are Carbohydrates

43. ‫‪Obesity and metabolic syndrome‬‬
‫• ترتبط كل من زيادة الوزن والسمنة بظاهرة مقاومة‬
‫الجسم لألنسولين التي سوف تسبب في عوامل‬
‫المخاطر العنقودية لمرض القلب ‪Cluster risk factors‬‬
‫‪ of cardio- vascular‬المعروفة باسم‬
‫‪ syndrome metabolic‬أو ( ‪(syndrome X‬والتي‬
‫تسبب األمراض التالية:‬
‫1. النوبة القلبية ‪.Heart attack‬‬
‫2. السكتة الدماغية ‪. Stroke‬‬

44. ‫كمية عالية من الدهون حول البطن‬ ‫•‬
‫تركيز سكر الدم أعلى من 011 ملجم / 001 مل.‬ ‫•‬
‫جليسيرات الثالثية أعلى من 051 ملجم / 001 مل.‬ ‫•‬
‫البروتين الدهني عالي الكثافة في الدم أقل من 04 ملجم /‬ ‫•‬
‫001 مل.‬
‫ضغط الدم 031 / 58 أو أعلى.‬ ‫•‬
‫تسبب هذه المتالزمة متالزمة المبيض‬ ‫•‬
‫‪Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome‬‬

45. ‫• وتسبب متالزمة المبيض للمرأة المشاكل التالية:-‬
‫1. إختفاء العادة الشهرية.‬
‫2. العفم.‬
‫3. أمراض الجلدية.‬
‫4. نمو غزير للشعر في الوجه والجسم.‬
‫5. فقد شعر الرأس.‬
‫6. حالة ما قبل األصابة بداء السكري(2) وداء السكري (2).‬

46. Complex Carbohydrates
• Complex carbohydrates are long chains of the
single sugar units.
• For example, the complex carbohydrate we
know as starch is made up of many glucose
units.
• These complex carbohydrates can be in the
shape of long chains, or the chains can form
branches.
• The complex carbohydrates include:

47. The basic chemical formula of • Starch, the energy storage
the starch molecule is form of carbohydrates
(C6H10O5)n. Starch is a found in plants, especially
polysaccharide comprising in the seeds and roots.
glucose monomers joined in a
1,4 linkages. The simplest form • Starch is made up of many
of starch is the linear polymer glucose units linked
amylose. together.
• Starchy food examples
include rice, wheat, corn,
carrots and potatoes.
• Starches are not water-
soluble and require
digestive enzymes called
amylases to break them
apart.

48. • Glycogen, the energy
storage form of
glucose found in the
muscles and livers of
animals.
• We don't consume
any carbohydrates
when you eat meats;
however, the amount
of glycogen in animal
tissue at the time of
slaughter does affect
the pH of meat.

49. • Cellulose, the structural component of
plants.
• Cellulose helps plants keep their shape; so,
cellulose acts like a plant skeleton.
• We are unable to digest cellulose; however
cellulose is one of the important
components of fiber, along with lignin,
chitin, pectin, beta- glucan , inulin and
oligosaccharides.

50. • Dietary starch and cellulose are the
complex carbohydrates that are important
in nutrition.
• Potatoes, dry beans, grains, rice, corn,
squash and peas contain a large amounts
of starch.
• Vegetables like broccoli, cauliflower,
asparagus, lettuces and other greens are
not starchy.

51. • Carbohydrates and Metabolism
• The body begins the process of breaking
carbohydrates down into their individual
monosaccharides almost before we start to eat them.
• When you smell the delicious aroma of fresh-baked
bread or think about that tasty chocolate that you're
about to consume, your mouth begins to water.
• Since table sugar is water-soluble, it begins to
dissolve in the saliva in mouth.
• Saliva also contains a small amount of amylase, which
is an enzyme that starts to break starch down into
glucose while you are chewing.

52. • Carbohydrate digestion is continued in the small
intestine where pancreatic amylase is secreted,
which breaks down the rest of the
carbohydrates.
• The individual monosaccharides are then
absorbed into the blood stream.
• Once in the blood, the monosaccharides are
either used for energy, stored in the liver and
muscles as glycogen, or if there is more energy
available than you can use, they are converted
and stored as fat.

53. • The storage of glucose is triggered by
insulin, which forces the body to store
any extra blood sugar as glycogen.
• People with diabetes or metabolic
syndrome either can't produce enough
insulin or they are not sensitive enough
to the insulin they produce and need to
regulate their blood sugar with
medications, insulin or dietary
changes.

54. • Body prefers to use glucose as the
main source of fuel for daily activity.
• Muscles need glucose to move and
organs need glucose to function,
including your brain.
• While the body can make glucose
from extra dietary protein and fats
you may eat, it is suggested that half
of your daily calories come from
carbohydrates.

55. • Try to get carbohydrates from
healthy sources such as whole
grains, fruits and vegetables.
• Cookies, sodas, candy and other
sweets are not so healthy
• An average healthy diet should
have half of your daily calories
coming from carbohydrates.

56. • One gram of carbohydrate, whether
is it is sugar or starch, contains four
calories.
• One slice of bread has about 1215-
grams of carbohydrates.
• One typical chocolate bar may have
about 50 grams of carbohydrates.
• A medium potato has about 35
grams of carbohydrates.

57. • Although all carbohydrates have 4 calories
per gram, some sources of carbohydrates
are better for your diet than others.
• Fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds
and grains are healthier than candy, sodas
and pastries.
• Why? The healthy carbohydrate sources
have great amounts of vitamins, minerals,
Phytochemicals and fiber, all of which are
vital to good health.

58. • Candy, sodas, pastries and other
junk foods usually are poor sources
of nutrients and sometimes we refer
to these foods as having "empty
calories.“
• This means the foods have lots of
calories with little or no nutrition.

59. • Since you need half of your calories from
carbohydrates, you can calculate how many you
need per day.
• For example, let's say a person needs 2,000
calories per day. That means that 1,000 calories
should come from carbohydrates (2,000 X 0.5).
• Since each gram of carbohydrate has 4 calories,
then you divide 1,000 by four (1,000/4) to get
250.
• A person who needs 2,000 calories each day
needs about 250 grams of carbohydrates per
day.

60. • Of those 250 grams, about 10 percent
can come from added table sugar and
sweeteners.
• That would be about 25 grams for a
2,000 calorie per day diet.
• That would equal about half of a candy
bar, or less than one can of sugary soda.
• Unfortunately many people exceed that
amount every day.

61. • In order to meet your carbohydrate
requirement each day, you need to
know how many carbohydrates are in all
of the foods you eat.
• It really is impossible to list every
carbohydrate containing food here,
however, here are some approximate
amounts from common examples:

62. • One slice of bread - 12.5 grams total, of
which 10 grams are starch and less than one
gram is fiber.
• One cup of pasta - 43 grams total, of which
36 grams are starch and 2.5 grams are fiber.
• One medium apple - 19 grams total, of which
eight grams are starch and three grams are
fiber
• One Snickers candy bar - 63.5 total grams, of
which 53 grams are sugar, two grams are
fiber.

63. • One cup of raisin bran cereal - 43 grams
total, of which seven grams are fiber, 17
grams are starch and 16 grams are sugar
.
• One cup of sugar frosted corn flake
cereal - 28 grams total, of which 15
grams are starch, one gram is fiber, 12
grams are sugar.
• 240 ml serving of low fat milk - 12 grams
total, of which 12 grams are lactose .

64. • One cup broccoli - six grams total, of
which 2.5 grams are fiber and 1.5
grams are sugar.
• One cup green beans - eight grams
total, of which four grams are fiber
• One cup sweet corn - 31 grams total,
of which 21 grams are starch, three
grams are fiber

65. • Two cups lettuce - two grams total, of which
one gram is fiber
• One cup asparagus - four grams total, of
which two grams are fiber
• One medium orange - 15 grams total, of
which three grams are fiber
• One half medium grapefruit - nine grams
total, of which 1.5 grams are fiber
• One medium chocolate chip cookie - 16
grams total, of which seven grams are sugar

66. • One cup strawberries - 12 grams total, of
which three grams are fiber
• One cup blueberries - 21 grams total, of
which four grams are fiber and 15 grams
are sugar
• One medium tomato - five grams total, of
which 1.5 grams are fiber
• One medium potato with skin - 29 grams
total, of which three grams are fiber, 25
grams are starch

67. • One cup carrots - 12 grams total, of which
3.5 grams are fiber and two grams are
starch
• One slice of an apple pie - 40 grams total,
of which 18 grams are sugar
• One cup of orange juice - 26 grams total,
of which 21 grams are from fruit sugars
• One cup of dry beans like pinto beans or
navy beans - 47 grams total, of which 19
grams are fiber, 28 grams are starch

68. The Importance Of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates take the form of sugars,
oligosaccharides, starches and fibres
and are one of the three major macro-
nutrients which supply the body with
energy (fat and protein being the
others). There is now good evidence
that at least 55% of our daily calories
should come from carbohydrates(1).

69. Whereas it is important to maintain an
appropriate balance between calorie intake
and expenditure, scientific studies suggest
that:
• A diet containing an optimum level of
carbohydrates may help prevent body fat
accumulation
• Starch and sugars provide readily accessible
fuel for physical performance
• Dietary fiber, which is a carbohydrate, helps
keep the bowel functioning correctly

70. • Apart from the direct benefits of
carbohydrates for the body, they are found in a
wide range of foods which themselves bring a
variety of other important nutrients to the
diet. For this reason it is recommended that
carbohydrates be supplied from diverse food
sources to ensure that the overall diet contains
adequate nutrients
• It is also important to remember that
carbohydrates contribute to the taste, texture
and appearance of foods and help to make the
diet more varied and enjoyable.

71. Sugars
•
Glucose and fructose are simple sugars or
monosaccharides and can be found in fruits, berries,
vegetables and honey.
• When two simple sugars combine, they form
disaccharides.
• Table sugar or sucrose is a combination of glucose and
fructose and occurs naturally both in sugar beet,
sugar cane and fruits.
• Lactose is the main sugar in milk and dairy products
and maltose is a disaccharide occurring in malt

72. • Polyols are so-called sugar alcohols.
They do occur naturally but most are
made commercially by the
transformation of sugars.
• Isomalt is the most commonly used
polyol and is derived from sucrose.
Polyols are sweet and can be used in
foods in a similar way to sugars
although they can have a laxative effect
when eaten in large quantities

73. Oligosaccharides
• When 3 to 9 sugar units combine they form
oligosaccharides.
• Maltodextrins contain up to 9 glucose units and
are produced commercially by the partial
hydrolysis (or breakdown) of starch.
• They are less sweet than mono- or
disaccharides.
• Raffinose, stachyose and fructo-
oligosaccharides are found only in small
amounts in certain pulses, grains and
vegetables.

74. Polysaccharides
More than 10 and sometimes even up to
several thousand sugar units are needed to
form polysaccharides.
Starch is the main energy reserve in root
vegetables and cereals.
It comprises long chains of glucose and occurs
as granules whose size and shape vary
according to the plant in which it is
contained.

75. • Non-starch polysaccharides are the
main components of dietary fiber.
• They include; cellulose, hemicelluloses,
pectins and gums.
• Cellulose is the major component of
plant cell walls and consists of several
thousand glucose units.
• The separate components of dietary
fibber have different physical structures
and properties.

76. Carbohydrates In The Body
The main function of carbohydrates is to
provide energy, but they also play an
important role in the structure and
function of the body organs and nerve
cells

77. • Energy source and storage
• Starches and sugars are the main energy-
providing carbohydrate sources and supply 4
kilocalories (17 kilojoules) per gram.
• To utilize this energy all carbohydrates need to
be broken down to glucose after which they are
transported to their place of use.
• Disaccharides are broken down by digestive
enzymes into simple sugars.
• The body also needs the help of digestive
enzymes to break down the long chains of
starches into their constituent sugars, which are
then absorbed into the bloodstream.

78. • Glucose can also be converted to glycogen, a
polysaccharide similar to starch, which is stored in
the liver and the muscles and is a readily available
source of energy for the body.
• The brain needs to use glucose as an energy source,
since it cannot use fat for this purpose.
• It is for this reason that the level of glucose in the
blood must be constantly maintained above the
minimum level.
• Glucose may come directly from dietary
carbohydrates or from glycogen stores.
• Several hormones, including insulin, work rapidly to
regulate the flow of glucose to and from the blood
to keep it at a steady level.

79. The glycaemic index (GI)
• When a carbohydrate food is eaten there is a
corresponding rise and subsequent decrease in
blood glucose level known as the glycaemic
response.
• This response is relevant, for example, to
appetite control, sports nutrition and those with
diabetes.
• A number of factors influence the rate and
duration of the glycaemic response. It depends
on:

80. 1. The specific food:
• The nature and the form of the carbohydrate
as some are more digestible than others The
cooking and processing methods used which
can change the digestibility. Other nutrients
in the food such as fat or protein that can
slow the digestion rate.
2. The individual person:
• their metabolism
• the time of day the carbohydrate is ingested

81. • The impact of different carbohydrate-
containing foods on the glycaemic
response of the body is classified
according to a standardized amount of
glucose.
• This measurement is called the
glycaemic index, (GI).

85. Gut function and dietary fiber
• The body is unable to digest dietary fibre and
some oligosaccharides in the small intestine.
• Fibre helps to ensure good gut function by
increasing the physical bulk in the bowel and
stimulating the intestinal transit.
• Once the indigestible carbohydrate passes into
the large intestine, some types of fiber such as
gums and pectins and the oligosaccharides are
fermented (broken down) by the gut microflora.
• This also increases the overall mass in the bowel
and has a beneficial effect on the make up of this
microflora.

86. Body Weight Regulation
• People eating a diet high in carbohydrates are
less likely to accumulate body fat compared with
those who follow a low carbohydrate/high-fat
diet.
• The reasons for this observation are threefold: It
could be due to the lower energy density of high
carbohydrate diets, as carbohydrates have less
calories weight for weight than fats. Fiber-rich
foods also tend to be bulky and physically filling
therefore less calories may be consumed.

87. • Studies have found that carbohydrates, both in
the form of starch and sugars, work quickly to
aid satiety and that those consuming high
carbohydrate diets are therefore less likely to
overeat.
• The inclusion of plenty of carbohydrate rich
foods appears to help regulate the appetite.
• Many foods with a lower glycaemic index may
be particularly satisfying as they are slowly.
• It has also been confirmed that very little
dietary carbohydrate is converted to body fat
mainly because it is a very inefficient process for
the body.
• Instead carbohydrate tends to be preferentially
used an energy by the body

88. • It is increasingly evident that diets high
in carbohydrate, as compared with
those high in fat, reduce the likelihood
of developing obesity.
• Starch and sugars have not been found
to have different effects on weight
control.
• In fact, in several studies, high sugar
consumers have been found to be
slimmer than low sugar consumers.

89. Diabetes
•
Diabetes is a metabolic disorder whereby the
body cannot regulate blood glucose levels
properly.
• There is no evidence that sugar consumption is
linked to the development of any type of
diabetes.
• However there is now good evidence that
obesity and physical inactivity increase the
likelihood of developing non-insulin dependent
diabetes, which usually occurs in middle age

90. • Weight reduction is usually necessary and is the
primary dietary aim for people with non-insulin
dependent (Type II) diabetes.
• Consuming a wide range of carbohydrate foods is
an acceptable part of the diet of all diabetics, and
the inclusion of low glycaemic index foods is
beneficial as they help regulate blood glucose
control.
• Most recommendations for the dietary
management of diabetes allow a modest amount
of ordinary sugar as the inclusion of sugar with a
meal has little impact on either blood glucose or
insulin concentrations in people with diabetes.

91. Dental Health
• The incidence of tooth decay is influenced by
a number of factors.
• These include: degree of oral hygiene and
plaque removal carried out,
• availability of fluoride,
• type of food eaten,
• frequency of consumption of any
fermentable carbohydrate
• genetic factors

92. • Foods containing sugars or starch can be broken
down by the enzymes and bacteria in the mouth
to produce acid which attacks the enamel of the
teeth.
• However it is not the amount of sugar or other
carbohydrate that is important but how often
they are consumed.
• After an acid challenge, saliva provides a natural
repair process which rebuilds the enamel.
• When carbohydrate-containing foods are
consumed too frequently, or nibbled over time,
this natural repair process is overwhelmed and
the risk of tooth decay is increased

93. • However in recent years the availability
of fluoride and the widespread use of
good oral hygiene practices have been
widely heralded as responsible for the
low rate of tooth decay in today's
children and adolescents.
• This improvement has happened
independent of any change in sugar or
fermentable carbohydrate intake.
• Keeping plaque bacteria at bay and
strengthening the teeth with fluoride
reduces the risk of decay.

94. • The research now available in the 1990's
allows a more rational approach to the
role of sugar and other carbohydrates in
dental caries.
• It is now recommended that
programmes to prevent dental caries
focus on fluoridation, adequate oral
hygiene and a varied diet, and not on
sugar intake alone.

95. Getting Active
• There is now substantial evidence that
carbohydrates can improve the performance
of athletes.
• During high intensity exercise, carbohydrates
are the main fuel for the muscles.
• By consuming high levels of carbohydrate
before, during and after training or an event,
glycogen stores are kept well stocked.
• These stocks help the athlete to perform for
longer and help their bodies sustain the
effort.

96. • The vital role of physical activity in
maintaining health and fitness in the general
population is now recognized.
• There is no doubt that many people would
benefit from increasing their activity level as
it helps in the regulation of body weight.
• It also reduces the risk of developing
diseases such as heart disease and diabetes.
• For those who want to keep fit and active, a
well-balanced high-carbohydrate diet is
recommended.

97. Carbohydrate Recommendation
• Carbohydrates in all shapes and forms are good for
your health.
• They can help to control body weight, especially
when combined with exercise, are vital for proper
gut function and are an important fuel for the brain
and active muscles.
• Neither starch nor sugar have been found to have
any special role in the development of serious
diseases such as diabetes, and the role of sugar in
the development of tooth decay is less important
in today's fluoride and oral hygiene aware
populations.

98. • The recent report from the World
Health Organization and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations on Carbohydrates in Human
Nutrition makes many
recommendations for health
professionals and research scientists,
but the most important messages for
the public are:

99. • the most important messages for the public are:
1. That the many health benefits of dietary
carbohydrates should be recognized and
promoted. Carbohydrates provide more than
energy alone.
2. An optimum diet contains at least 55% of
energy from carbohydrates for all those over
two years of age.
3. A wide range of carbohydrate-containing foods
should be consumed so that the diet is
sufficient in essential nutrients and dietary
fiber.

100. References
• WHO/FAO (1998) Carbohydrates in human nutrition. FAO food and
nutrition paper no. 66. FAO, Rome. Foster-Powell, K., Brand
• Miller, J. (1995), International tables of glycaemic index. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 62: 871S-93S. Hellerstein, M.K.,
• Christiansen, M., Kaempfer, S. et al (1991). Measurement of de novo
hepatic lipogenesis in humans using stable isotopes. J. Clin.
• Invest. 87: 1841-1852. World Health Organisation (1998) Obesity -
preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of the WHO
consultation on obesity. Geneva, June 97. Bolton-Smith C & Woodward
• M (1994). Dietary composition and fat to sugar ratios in relation to
obesity. Int J Obesity 18;820-828. US Department of Health and Human
• Services (1996). Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon
General, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. 7. Fejershov O. Concepts of dental caries
and their consequences for understanding the disease. Community Dent.
Oral Epidemiol. 1997; 25: 5-12.

101. Further Reading
• Dietary Starches and Sugars in Man: A
comparison (1989). Edited by J. Dobbing, ILSI
Human Nutrition Review series.
• ILSI Europe Concise Monographs Series:
Nutritional and Health Aspects of Sugars:
Evaluation of New Findings (1995).
• ILSI Europe Concise Monographs Series:
Caries Preventative Strategies (1995).