This document discusses carbohydrates and their role as an energy source. It explains that glucose provides immediate energy while glycogen stores excess glucose. Carbohydrates are divided into simple and complex types. Simple carbohydrates like sugars are easily digested while complex carbohydrates like starches and fibers require more breakdown. The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels through the hormones insulin and glucagon. Imbalances can lead to conditions like diabetes or hypoglycemia. Dietary recommendations emphasize balancing carbohydrates with fiber, protein, and fat.
The document discusses carbohydrates, including their classification into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the functions of carbohydrates as an energy source for the brain and regulating blood sugar levels. It also notes diseases that can result from carbohydrate deficiency, such as muscle cramping, fatigue, headaches, and dizziness.
Polysaccharides are complex monosaccharide polymers that serve a wide variety of functions. They can be classified as homopolymers containing a single monosaccharide unit or heteropolymers containing different sugar units. Starch is a major plant polysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin. It is used as food, in pharmaceuticals, and to produce dextrins and soluble starch. Dextrins are prepared from starch by partial hydrolysis and are used as substitutes for gums. Cyclodextrins are obtained from starch and have a hydrophobic central cavity, making them useful for enclosing drugs.
Carbohydrates are a major source of energy and can be classified as simple or complex depending on their chemical structure. Simple carbohydrates like monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) and disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose) are small molecules that are quickly absorbed, while complex carbohydrates like starches and fibers are large molecules that are absorbed slowly. Carbohydrates serve many functions including energy storage, structural support, and promoting healthy digestion. Both insufficient and excessive carbohydrate intake can negatively impact health.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of proteins in the human body. It discusses that proteins are obtained endogenously from digestive enzymes and cells, as well as exogenously from dietary intake. The stomach contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin to denature and break down proteins. The pancreas secretes trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and other zymogens which are activated and further digest proteins into peptides and amino acids in the small intestine. Aminopeptidases and dipeptidases on intestinal cells complete the digestion. Amino acids are then absorbed via active transport systems involving sodium and ATP. Deficiencies or defects in these digestive processes can impair protein digestion.
Lipids, classification, digestion and absorptionHu--da
Introduction of lipids
Sources of lipids
Classification of lipids
Trans fat
Alteration of dietary fats during food processing
Digestion, absorption of lipids
Absorption of cholesterol
Lipid transport
Lipid metabolism
Biosynthesis of fatty acids
Essential fatty acids
Oxidation of fatty acids
Impact of diet on fatty acids synthesis
Cholesterol synthesis and excretion
Lipids undergo a multi-step digestion and absorption process in the gastrointestinal tract. Dietary lipids are emulsified and broken down into smaller components like fatty acids and monoacylglycerols by lingual and gastric lipases in the stomach and pancreatic lipase in the small intestine. Bile salts produced by the liver play a key role in emulsification. The products of digestion are incorporated into micelles and absorbed by intestinal cells. Inside cells, fatty acids are reassembled into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons that enter the lymphatic system and bloodstream for transport to tissues. Defects in digestion, emulsification, or absorption can impair this process.
Carbohydrates provide the body with its primary source of energy. They have a chemical composition of (CH2O)n and can be classified as simple or complex. Simple carbohydrates like monosaccharides glucose, fructose, and galactose and disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose are more easily digested, while complex carbohydrates like starch, fiber, and polysaccharides provide vitamins, minerals and fiber. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose through digestion in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine before being absorbed. Tests like Benedict's test and iodine testing can identify the presence of sugars and starches.
The document discusses carbohydrates, including their classification into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the functions of carbohydrates as an energy source for the brain and regulating blood sugar levels. It also notes diseases that can result from carbohydrate deficiency, such as muscle cramping, fatigue, headaches, and dizziness.
Polysaccharides are complex monosaccharide polymers that serve a wide variety of functions. They can be classified as homopolymers containing a single monosaccharide unit or heteropolymers containing different sugar units. Starch is a major plant polysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin. It is used as food, in pharmaceuticals, and to produce dextrins and soluble starch. Dextrins are prepared from starch by partial hydrolysis and are used as substitutes for gums. Cyclodextrins are obtained from starch and have a hydrophobic central cavity, making them useful for enclosing drugs.
Carbohydrates are a major source of energy and can be classified as simple or complex depending on their chemical structure. Simple carbohydrates like monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) and disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose) are small molecules that are quickly absorbed, while complex carbohydrates like starches and fibers are large molecules that are absorbed slowly. Carbohydrates serve many functions including energy storage, structural support, and promoting healthy digestion. Both insufficient and excessive carbohydrate intake can negatively impact health.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of proteins in the human body. It discusses that proteins are obtained endogenously from digestive enzymes and cells, as well as exogenously from dietary intake. The stomach contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin to denature and break down proteins. The pancreas secretes trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and other zymogens which are activated and further digest proteins into peptides and amino acids in the small intestine. Aminopeptidases and dipeptidases on intestinal cells complete the digestion. Amino acids are then absorbed via active transport systems involving sodium and ATP. Deficiencies or defects in these digestive processes can impair protein digestion.
Lipids, classification, digestion and absorptionHu--da
Introduction of lipids
Sources of lipids
Classification of lipids
Trans fat
Alteration of dietary fats during food processing
Digestion, absorption of lipids
Absorption of cholesterol
Lipid transport
Lipid metabolism
Biosynthesis of fatty acids
Essential fatty acids
Oxidation of fatty acids
Impact of diet on fatty acids synthesis
Cholesterol synthesis and excretion
Lipids undergo a multi-step digestion and absorption process in the gastrointestinal tract. Dietary lipids are emulsified and broken down into smaller components like fatty acids and monoacylglycerols by lingual and gastric lipases in the stomach and pancreatic lipase in the small intestine. Bile salts produced by the liver play a key role in emulsification. The products of digestion are incorporated into micelles and absorbed by intestinal cells. Inside cells, fatty acids are reassembled into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons that enter the lymphatic system and bloodstream for transport to tissues. Defects in digestion, emulsification, or absorption can impair this process.
Carbohydrates provide the body with its primary source of energy. They have a chemical composition of (CH2O)n and can be classified as simple or complex. Simple carbohydrates like monosaccharides glucose, fructose, and galactose and disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose are more easily digested, while complex carbohydrates like starch, fiber, and polysaccharides provide vitamins, minerals and fiber. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose through digestion in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine before being absorbed. Tests like Benedict's test and iodine testing can identify the presence of sugars and starches.
Carbohydrates classification, biochemical properties, isomerism and qualitati...AnjaliKR3
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a chief source of energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polymers of many monosaccharide units. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy-related roles in living organisms.
Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth by salivary amylase and in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal enzymes. Monosaccharides like glucose are absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport involving sodium-glucose transporters in the intestinal walls. Glucose is the primary fuel for cells and its uptake is mediated by glucose transporters, especially GLUT2 and GLUT4 which are regulated by insulin. Deficiencies in disaccharide-digesting enzymes can cause issues like lactose intolerance and related symptoms.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. The most common monosaccharide is D-glucose, which cells use for energy. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose and fructose), disaccharides (two monosaccharides joined like sucrose), oligosaccharides (3-9 monosaccharides), or polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen). D-glucose is the primary energy source in animals and plants and is stored as glycogen in animals. Common disaccharides formed from monosaccharides include sucrose from glucose and fructose, lactose from glucose and galactose, and malto
The document presents a lipid presentation covering the objectives, chemistry, structure, classification, properties and roles of lipids. It discusses the three main classes of lipids - simple lipids like fatty acids and acylglycerols, compound lipids including phospholipids, and derived lipids such as steroids, terpenoids and carotenoids. Key points covered include the composition of lipids from fatty acids and glycerol, their insolubility in water, roles in energy storage and cell membrane structure, and examples like cholesterol.
This document discusses lipids and fatty acids. It defines lipids and lists their main functions. Lipids are classified as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. Fatty acids are described, including their chemistry, classification as saturated or unsaturated, nomenclature, and examples of biologically important fatty acids. Essential fatty acids are discussed along with their importance.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides in the mouth by salivary amylase, pass undigested through the stomach, and are further broken down in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal disaccharidases into absorbable monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport using sodium-glucose transporters or facilitated diffusion using glucose transporters. Lactose intolerance results if the enzyme lactase is deficient and lactose cannot be fully digested.
This document summarizes key aspects of lipid metabolism, including digestion and absorption of lipids, the fate of absorbed lipids, mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, ketone body formation and utilization, lipogenesis, and the clinical importance of lipid metabolism. Key points covered include the roles of bile acids and pancreatic lipases in lipid digestion, the formation and function of chylomicrons, hormone-sensitive lipase activation of fatty acid mobilization, fatty acid activation and beta-oxidation pathways, ketogenesis in the liver, the steps and regulation of lipogenesis, and clinical correlates such as ketoacidosis and fatty acid oxidation defects.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
This document discusses carbohydrates and sugars. It notes that carbohydrates are a macronutrient that provides energy and are found in many foods. Carbohydrates can be classified as sugars, starches, or fiber. Sugars include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides. The document provides recommendations for carbohydrate intake and discusses the metabolism, health effects, and safety of various sugars.
This document discusses basal metabolic rate and factors that affect energy balance and weight. It defines basal metabolic rate as the minimum energy required to sustain vital functions at rest. Several factors can influence BMR, including age, height, body composition, and thyroid function. It also discusses specific dynamic action, the increase in metabolic rate due to digestion of food, and how physical activity levels impact total daily energy needs. Body mass index is presented as a common measure of weight status.
Chemistry of carbohydrates disaccharidesRavi Kiran
This document discusses various disaccharides. It describes the structures and properties of sucrose, lactose, maltose, and isomaltose. Sucrose is a non-reducing disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by an alpha-1,2 glycosidic bond. Lactose is a reducing disaccharide found in milk consisting of glucose and galactose linked by a beta-1,4 bond. Maltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,4 bond, while isomaltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,6 bond. The document also provides details on the hydrolysis and properties of each disaccharide.
At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:-
1. Differentiate simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrate
2. Describe the function of carbohydrates in the body
3. Demonstrate knowledge of health with carbohydrates
This document summarizes lipid metabolism in the body. It discusses how fatty acids are taken up by cells and used as precursors, fuels, or substrates for ketone body synthesis. Ketone bodies can then be exported to other tissues for energy production. The document also outlines the multi-step digestive process that triglycerides must undergo to be broken down and absorbed, including hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase and transport via micelles and chylomicrons. Triglycerides are stored in adipose tissue and mobilized through lipolysis triggered by hormones like epinephrine and glucocorticoids. Glycerol and fatty acids are released from triglycerides and can be used for energy production.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
Lipids are digested and absorbed in a multi-step process involving enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. In the mouth, lingual lipase begins hydrolysis of triglycerides. In the stomach, gastric lipase continues this process. In the small intestine, pancreatic lipase works with bile salts to further digest triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides. Bile salts emulsify lipids and facilitate absorption. Fatty acids and monoglycerides are absorbed into intestinal cells and re-esterified into triglycerides. These triglycerides are packaged into chylomicrons and enter the lymphatic system for transport.
This document discusses the digestion and absorption of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. Lipids require specialized machinery to be broken down and absorbed due to their insoluble nature. In the stomach, lipids undergo minor digestion by gastric lipase. In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify lipids into smaller droplets for pancreatic lipase to act on. Lipases break down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These products are absorbed via mixed micelles and transported through the intestinal cells before being packaged into chylomicrons for systemic circulation. Disorders of the pancreas or liver can impair lipid digestion and absorption, leading to conditions like steatorrhea.
Subject : Nutrition, Unit- VI
This topic provides brief knowledge about lipid metabolism and it is prepared according to INC syllabus for first year BSc Nursing Students.
Carbohydrates play several important biochemical roles in the body. They serve as the body's instant source of energy, being converted into ATP faster than fats or proteins. Carbohydrates are also the primary storage form of energy in the body as glycogen stored in the liver and muscles. Additionally, carbohydrates form important conjugated molecules by combining with proteins and lipids, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids which are important for cell structure and communication. Maintaining normal blood glucose levels and consuming the proper amount of carbohydrates is important for health, as deficiencies or excesses can lead to diseases.
3 simple and complex carbohydrates lec 3Siham Gritly
The document discusses carbohydrate nomenclature and structures. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Monosaccharides include aldoses with an aldehyde group and ketoses with a ketone group. Common monosaccharides are glucose, galactose, and fructose which are hexoses. The document discusses cyclic forms such as pyranoses and furanoses. It also covers stereochemistry, anomers, chair conformations, and mutarotation.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Carbohydrates classification, biochemical properties, isomerism and qualitati...AnjaliKR3
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a chief source of energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polymers of many monosaccharide units. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy-related roles in living organisms.
Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth by salivary amylase and in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal enzymes. Monosaccharides like glucose are absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport involving sodium-glucose transporters in the intestinal walls. Glucose is the primary fuel for cells and its uptake is mediated by glucose transporters, especially GLUT2 and GLUT4 which are regulated by insulin. Deficiencies in disaccharide-digesting enzymes can cause issues like lactose intolerance and related symptoms.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. The most common monosaccharide is D-glucose, which cells use for energy. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose and fructose), disaccharides (two monosaccharides joined like sucrose), oligosaccharides (3-9 monosaccharides), or polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen). D-glucose is the primary energy source in animals and plants and is stored as glycogen in animals. Common disaccharides formed from monosaccharides include sucrose from glucose and fructose, lactose from glucose and galactose, and malto
The document presents a lipid presentation covering the objectives, chemistry, structure, classification, properties and roles of lipids. It discusses the three main classes of lipids - simple lipids like fatty acids and acylglycerols, compound lipids including phospholipids, and derived lipids such as steroids, terpenoids and carotenoids. Key points covered include the composition of lipids from fatty acids and glycerol, their insolubility in water, roles in energy storage and cell membrane structure, and examples like cholesterol.
This document discusses lipids and fatty acids. It defines lipids and lists their main functions. Lipids are classified as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. Fatty acids are described, including their chemistry, classification as saturated or unsaturated, nomenclature, and examples of biologically important fatty acids. Essential fatty acids are discussed along with their importance.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides in the mouth by salivary amylase, pass undigested through the stomach, and are further broken down in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal disaccharidases into absorbable monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport using sodium-glucose transporters or facilitated diffusion using glucose transporters. Lactose intolerance results if the enzyme lactase is deficient and lactose cannot be fully digested.
This document summarizes key aspects of lipid metabolism, including digestion and absorption of lipids, the fate of absorbed lipids, mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, ketone body formation and utilization, lipogenesis, and the clinical importance of lipid metabolism. Key points covered include the roles of bile acids and pancreatic lipases in lipid digestion, the formation and function of chylomicrons, hormone-sensitive lipase activation of fatty acid mobilization, fatty acid activation and beta-oxidation pathways, ketogenesis in the liver, the steps and regulation of lipogenesis, and clinical correlates such as ketoacidosis and fatty acid oxidation defects.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
This document discusses carbohydrates and sugars. It notes that carbohydrates are a macronutrient that provides energy and are found in many foods. Carbohydrates can be classified as sugars, starches, or fiber. Sugars include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides. The document provides recommendations for carbohydrate intake and discusses the metabolism, health effects, and safety of various sugars.
This document discusses basal metabolic rate and factors that affect energy balance and weight. It defines basal metabolic rate as the minimum energy required to sustain vital functions at rest. Several factors can influence BMR, including age, height, body composition, and thyroid function. It also discusses specific dynamic action, the increase in metabolic rate due to digestion of food, and how physical activity levels impact total daily energy needs. Body mass index is presented as a common measure of weight status.
Chemistry of carbohydrates disaccharidesRavi Kiran
This document discusses various disaccharides. It describes the structures and properties of sucrose, lactose, maltose, and isomaltose. Sucrose is a non-reducing disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by an alpha-1,2 glycosidic bond. Lactose is a reducing disaccharide found in milk consisting of glucose and galactose linked by a beta-1,4 bond. Maltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,4 bond, while isomaltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,6 bond. The document also provides details on the hydrolysis and properties of each disaccharide.
At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:-
1. Differentiate simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrate
2. Describe the function of carbohydrates in the body
3. Demonstrate knowledge of health with carbohydrates
This document summarizes lipid metabolism in the body. It discusses how fatty acids are taken up by cells and used as precursors, fuels, or substrates for ketone body synthesis. Ketone bodies can then be exported to other tissues for energy production. The document also outlines the multi-step digestive process that triglycerides must undergo to be broken down and absorbed, including hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase and transport via micelles and chylomicrons. Triglycerides are stored in adipose tissue and mobilized through lipolysis triggered by hormones like epinephrine and glucocorticoids. Glycerol and fatty acids are released from triglycerides and can be used for energy production.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
Lipids are digested and absorbed in a multi-step process involving enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. In the mouth, lingual lipase begins hydrolysis of triglycerides. In the stomach, gastric lipase continues this process. In the small intestine, pancreatic lipase works with bile salts to further digest triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides. Bile salts emulsify lipids and facilitate absorption. Fatty acids and monoglycerides are absorbed into intestinal cells and re-esterified into triglycerides. These triglycerides are packaged into chylomicrons and enter the lymphatic system for transport.
This document discusses the digestion and absorption of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. Lipids require specialized machinery to be broken down and absorbed due to their insoluble nature. In the stomach, lipids undergo minor digestion by gastric lipase. In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify lipids into smaller droplets for pancreatic lipase to act on. Lipases break down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These products are absorbed via mixed micelles and transported through the intestinal cells before being packaged into chylomicrons for systemic circulation. Disorders of the pancreas or liver can impair lipid digestion and absorption, leading to conditions like steatorrhea.
Subject : Nutrition, Unit- VI
This topic provides brief knowledge about lipid metabolism and it is prepared according to INC syllabus for first year BSc Nursing Students.
Carbohydrates play several important biochemical roles in the body. They serve as the body's instant source of energy, being converted into ATP faster than fats or proteins. Carbohydrates are also the primary storage form of energy in the body as glycogen stored in the liver and muscles. Additionally, carbohydrates form important conjugated molecules by combining with proteins and lipids, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids which are important for cell structure and communication. Maintaining normal blood glucose levels and consuming the proper amount of carbohydrates is important for health, as deficiencies or excesses can lead to diseases.
3 simple and complex carbohydrates lec 3Siham Gritly
The document discusses carbohydrate nomenclature and structures. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Monosaccharides include aldoses with an aldehyde group and ketoses with a ketone group. Common monosaccharides are glucose, galactose, and fructose which are hexoses. The document discusses cyclic forms such as pyranoses and furanoses. It also covers stereochemistry, anomers, chair conformations, and mutarotation.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a major source of energy. They are classified based on their structure as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides. Carbohydrates can be identified using chemical tests such as Molisch, Fehling's, Benedict's, Barfoed, and iodine tests. These tests identify carbohydrates based on properties such as being reducing or non-reducing sugars.
This document provides information about carbohydrates including their history, occurrence, classification, isolation, properties, identification tests, pharmaceutical importance, and pharmacognostic study of individual carbohydrate-containing drugs. It discusses the various classes of carbohydrates such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Examples are provided for each class. The document also outlines methods for extracting different types of carbohydrates from plant materials and identifying carbohydrates using common chemical tests. The pharmaceutical uses and importance of some specific carbohydrates are highlighted. Individual drug monographs on pectin, guar gum, agar, acacia, honey, isapgol, and tragacanth are also included which detail
The document discusses carbohydrates and provides details about their classification and properties. It begins by defining carbohydrates and noting they are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units they contain. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are highlighted. Common disaccharides and polysaccharides are also listed such as sucrose, lactose, starch, and cellulose. In closing, it emphasizes that polysaccharides serve important structural or energy storage functions in plants and animals.
The document discusses the pancreas, insulin, glucagon, and diabetes mellitus. The pancreas has both digestive and endocrine functions. Its islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream. Insulin regulates carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, promoting storage of glucose and fatty acids. Glucagon increases blood glucose levels through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Diabetes mellitus occurs when insulin secretion is impaired (type 1) or tissues are resistant to insulin (type 2), leading to high blood glucose levels and various complications if not controlled.
This document discusses principles of nutrition, including:
1. Food provides energy and building blocks for cells through metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
2. An adequate diet must supply essential nutrients like vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and water.
3. Carbohydrates are the primary energy source and consist of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides that provide energy through various metabolic pathways.
This document summarizes key polysaccharides found in plants and animals. Plant polysaccharides include starch, a storage form found in seeds and grains, and fibers like cellulose which provide structure. Fibers promote gastrointestinal and cardiovascular health. Animal polysaccharides primarily consist of glycogen, the storage form found in liver and muscle tissue. Glycogen provides rapid glucose to working muscles through breakdown and resynthesis regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon in response to blood sugar levels. The document recommends daily carbohydrate intake of 300-600 grams depending on physical activity level to serve as energy fuel.
This document summarizes gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate substrates. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidney and involves both cytosolic and mitochondrial enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods without food intake and ensures an adequate glucose supply to the brain and red blood cells. While some of the same enzymes are involved in both gluconeogenesis and glycolysis, gluconeogenesis requires more energy to bypass three irreversible steps in glycolysis.
The document discusses the functions, sources, and classification of carbohydrates. It describes carbohydrates' primary functions as providing energy, preventing protein from being used as energy, and supporting normal fat metabolism. Carbohydrates are obtained mainly from plants like grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as some animal sources like milk. They are classified as simple (monosaccharides and disaccharides) or complex (polysaccharides) depending on their size and structure.
This document discusses the absorption of monosaccharides in the small intestine. It notes that monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are produced from carbohydrate digestion and absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum. Glucose accounts for 80% of absorbed monosaccharides. Glucose absorption involves sodium-glucose cotransporters, while fructose absorption occurs via facilitated diffusion. Factors like thyroid hormones and vitamins can influence absorption rates. Defects in monosaccharide transporters can cause conditions like glucose-galactose malabsorption.
The document discusses carbohydrates, including their sources, types, digestion, functions, and dietary recommendations. It describes simple and complex carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document also covers fiber, blood glucose regulation, and dietary sweeteners as well as their roles in health and disease.
Carbohydrates provide the largest source of calories and include starch, lactose, and sucrose. The small intestine breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides like glucose through digestion by enzymes attached to the intestinal wall. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to tissues like muscle and liver to be used for energy or stored as glycogen for later use.
This document discusses how different tissues communicate metabolically through hormones. It summarizes several key metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and gluconeogenesis, and how they are regulated in different organs like the liver, brain, muscle and adipose tissue. It also covers metabolic adaptations during fasting and starvation to maintain blood glucose and preserve proteins, as well as changes during exercise, obesity, diabetes and with ethanol consumption.
This document summarizes carbohydrate digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract. It describes how carbohydrates are broken down into smaller molecules by salivary and pancreatic amylases and intestinal disaccharidases and oligosaccharidases. The monosaccharides glucose, fructose and galactose that are produced are then absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine. Glucose absorption is an active process that utilizes sodium-glucose co-transporters, while fructose absorption occurs via facilitated diffusion. Factors that can influence carbohydrate absorption such as intestinal health, hormones and vitamins are also discussed.
This document discusses glucose homeostasis and the tightly regulated process of maintaining blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It describes the various sources of blood glucose, including dietary carbohydrates and the body's ability to produce glucose through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis when needed. Key hormones involved in regulating glucose include insulin, released after meals to lower blood glucose levels, and glucagon, released during fasting to raise blood glucose levels and promote glycogen breakdown and glucose production. Precise control of these opposing hormones is critical for metabolic health.
This document summarizes key aspects of insulin and glucagon regulation of blood glucose levels. It discusses that insulin and glucagon are polypeptide hormones secreted by the pancreas that have opposing functions. Insulin is produced in response to high blood glucose to promote glucose uptake and storage. Glucagon is produced in response to low blood glucose to promote glucose release from stores. The document also summarizes the different types of diabetes, their causes and treatments.
The document discusses hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels. It explains that insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine work to keep blood glucose within a narrow range. Insulin is released when glucose is high and signals cells to take up and store glucose. Glucagon is released when glucose is low and signals the liver to produce glucose through gluconeogenesis and glycogen breakdown. Epinephrine prepares the body for activity by stimulating glycogen and fat breakdown. Diabetes results from defects in insulin production or action, leading to high blood glucose and ketone production. Prolonged fasting relies on gluconeogenesis and ketone bodies for fuel. Alcohol excess can cause hypoglycemia by inhibiting gluconeogenesis in the liver.
This document provides an overview of blood glucose regulation and diabetes. It begins with definitions of key terms like blood sugar, normal glucose levels, and hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. The document then discusses the history of diabetes research and discoveries. It explains the normal physiology of glucose regulation including the roles of insulin, glucagon, and other hormones. It also covers alterations in blood glucose levels and the public health impacts of diabetes.
- Insulin is a hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas that regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism. It promotes the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, muscle, and fatty tissue.
- Insulin was first isolated in 1922 which revolutionized treatment for diabetes. It binds to insulin receptors on cells and triggers effects like increasing glucose uptake and glycogen/lipid synthesis while inhibiting gluconeogenesis and lipolysis.
- Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood glucose levels after eating to promote storage of excess glucose. Multiple factors affect its secretion including hormones like glucagon, growth hormone, cortisol, and epinephrine.
1. The pancreas contains clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete hormones like insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels. Insulin allows cells to take in glucose from the bloodstream and lowers blood glucose levels, while glucagon has the opposite effect.
2. In diabetes, the pancreas either produces little or no insulin (type 1 diabetes) or the body develops a resistance to insulin's effects (type 2 diabetes), disrupting the body's ability to regulate blood glucose levels and maintain homeostasis. This leads to high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia).
3. Without enough insulin to allow cells to take in glucose, the body begins to breakdown proteins and fats
This document summarizes digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It describes how nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and fats are broken down into smaller molecules through hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides, proteins into peptides and amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and monoglycerides. Absorption occurs through active transport, passive diffusion, and endocytosis across the intestinal epithelium. The small intestine has adaptations like villi and microvilli that increase its surface area for absorption. Water and electrolytes like sodium and chloride are also absorbed through the intestines.
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This document discusses carbohydrate digestion and metabolism in animals. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing the different types. Carbohydrate digestion occurs through enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. In ruminants, microbes in the rumen digest carbs through fermentation. Glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream and can then be metabolized through glycolysis to produce energy, stored as glycogen through glycogenesis, or converted to fat. Blood glucose levels are regulated by the hormones insulin and glucagon.
The document discusses various topics related to nutrition including macromolecules that provide energy like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It describes the roles of the liver, vitamins, minerals, and enzymes in breaking down nutrients. Specific carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are defined. The document also covers protein structure, fat types, cholesterol, blood sugar regulation, energy requirements, metabolic rate, and eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia.
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This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
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advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
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The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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2. Carbohydrates
glucose provides energy for the brain and ½
of energy for muscles and tissues
glycogen is stored glucose
glucose is immediate energy
glycogen is reserve energy
3. Carbohydrates
all plant food
milk
carbohydrates are not equal
– simple carbohydrates
– complex carbohydrates
10. Disaccharides
pairs of the monosaccharides
– glucose is always present
– 2nd of the pair could be fructose, galactose
or another glucose
– taken apart by hydrolysis
– put together by condensation
– hydrolysis and condensation occur with all
energy nutrients
– maltose, sucrose, lactose
16. Complex Carbohydrates
polysaccharides
– glycogen and starch
built entirely of glucose
– fiber
variety of monosaccharides and other
carbohydrate derivatives
17. Glycogen
limited in meat and not found in plants
– not an important dietary source of
carbohydrate
BUT
– all glucose is stored as glycogen
– long chains allow for
hydrolysis and release
of energy
19. Fiber
structural parts of plants
– found in all plant derived food
bonds of fibers cannot be broken down
during the digestive process
– minimal or no energy available
21. Fiber Characteristics
soluble fibers, viscous, fermentable
– easily digested by bacteria in colon
– associated with protection against heart
disease and diabetes
lower cholesterol and glucose levels
– found in legumes and fruits
22. Fiber
insoluble and not easily fermented
– promote bowel movements
– alleviate constipation
– found in grains and vegetables
23. DRI and Fiber
distinguish fibers by source
– dietary fibers: naturally in intact plants
– functional fibers: extracted from plants or
manufactured
– total fiber: sum of the 2
24. Carbohydrate Digestion
break down into glucose
– body is able to absorb and use
large starch molecules
– extensive breakdown
disaccharides
– broken once
monosaccharides
– don’t need to be broken down
25. Carbohydrate Digestion
begins in mouth
– chewing releases saliva
– enzyme amylase hydrolyzes starch to
polysaccharides and maltose
stomach
– no enzymes available to break down
starch
– acid does some breakdown
– fibers in starch provide feeling of fullness
26. small intestine
– majority of carbohydrate digestion
takes place here
– pancreatic amylase reduces carbs to
glucose chains or disaccharides
– specific enzymes finish the job
maltase
–maltose into 2 glucose
sucrase
–sucrose into glucose and fructose
lactase
–lactose into glucose and
galactose
27. large intestine
– 1-4 hours for sugars and
starches to be digested
– only fibers remain
attract water, which
softens stool
– bacteria ferment some fibers
water, gas, short-chain
fatty acids (used for
energy)
28. Carbohydrate Absorption
glucose can be absorbed in the mouth
majority absorbed in small intestine
– active transport
glucose and galactic
– facilitated diffusion
fructose
smaller rise in blood glucose
29. Lactose Intolerance
more lactose is consumed than can be
digested
– lactose molecules attract water
cause floating, abdominal discomfort,
diarrhea
– intestinal bacteria feed on undigested
lactose
produce acid and gas
30. Lactose Intolerance
age, damage, medication, diarrhea,
malnutrition
management requires dietary change
– 6 grams (1/2 cup) usually tolerable
– take in gradually
– hard cheeses & cottage cheese
– enzyme drops or tablets
lactose free diet is extremely difficult to
accomplish
31.
32. Carbohydrate Metabolism
1/3 of body’s glycogen is stored in liver
– released as glucose to bloodstream
1. eat – intake glucose
2. liver condenses extra glucose to glycogen
3. blood glucose falls
4. liver hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose
Glycogen is bulky, so we store only so much:
short term energy supply
Fat is the long term energy supply.
33. Glucose for Energy
enzymes break apart glucose – yielding
energy
inadequate supply of carbohydrates
– ketone bodies (fat fragments) are an
alternate energy source during starvation
– excess ketones can lead to ketosis:
imbalance of acids in body
minimum of 50 – 100 grams of carbs/day
are needed to avoid ketosis
34. Glucose Homeostasis
maintaining an even balance of glucose is
controlled by insulin and glucagon
– insulin
moves glucose into the blood
– glucagon
brings glucose out of storage
35. maintaining balance
– balanced meals at regular intervals
fiber and some fat slow the digestive
process down
glucose gets into the blood slow and
steady
36. Intestine 1
When a person eats,
Maintaining blood glucose rises.
Blood
Glucose Pancreas
2
High blood glucose stimulates
Homeostasis the pancreas to release insulin.
Insulin
3 Insulin stimulates the uptake of
glucose into cells and storage
as glycogen in the liver and
Liver muscles. Insulin also stimulates
the conversion of excess
glucose into fat for storage.
Fat cell Muscle
4
As the body's cells use
glucose, blood levels decline.
Pancreas 5 Low blood glucose stimulates
the pancreas to release
Glucagon glucagon into the bloodstream.
6 Glucagon stimulates liver
cells to break down glycogen
Glucose and release glucose into the
blood.a
Insulin
Glucagon
Liver
Glycogen
a
The stress hormone
epinephrine and other hormones 7 Blood glucose begins to
also bring glucose out of storage. rise.
37. Imbalance
diabetes
– after food intake, blood glucose rises and
is not regulated because insulin is
inadequate
hypoglycemia
– blood glucose drops dramatically
too much insulin, activity, inadequate
food intake, illness
diet adjustment includes fiber-rich carbs
and protein
38. Glycemic Index
way of classifying
food according to
their ability to raise
blood glucose
much controversy
39. Sugar
½ comes from natural sources, ½ from
refined and added
– sucrose, corn syrup, honey
excess can lead to nutrient deficiencies
and tooth decay
– empty calories
– sugar and starch break down in the
mouth
41. Starch and Fiber
diet that includes starch, fiber and natural
sugars
– whole grains, vegetables, legumes, fruits
may protect against heart disease and
stroke
reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes
enhances the health of the large
intestine
can promote weight loss
42. Starch and Fiber
starch intake
– 45-65%
– 225 – 325 grams (DV is 300
grams)
– 900-1300 kcal/2000 kcal
– RDA is 130 grams
fiber intake
– Daily Value is 25 grams/2000
kcal
43.
44.
45. Groceries
grains: 1 serving = 15 grams
vegetables
– ½ cup starchy = 15 grams
– ½ cup nonstarchy = 5 grams
fruit: 1 serving = 15 grams
milk: 1 cup = 12 grams
meat: none or little
legumes: ½ cup = 15 grams
46. Artificial Sweeteners
help keep sugar and energy intake down
anything we eat has FDA approval
– saccharin
– aspartame
– acesulfame potassium
– sucralose
– neotame
47.
48. Sugar Replacers
sugar alcohols
– provide bulk and sweetness
cookies, gum, candy, jelly
– do contain minimal kcal
– low glycemic response
absorbed slowly
– do not cause dental caries