Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a chief source of energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polymers of many monosaccharide units. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy-related roles in living organisms.
This document discusses the chemistry and functions of carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and classifies them into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. The document discusses isomerism, mutarotation, epimers, and the reactions of monosaccharides. It describes the roles of carbohydrates as an energy source, precursor for other biomolecules, and structural component in cells. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose and their importance are highlighted.
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
1. Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar molecules present.
2. Monosaccharides exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. The rings can be pyranoses or furanoses depending on whether they have 6 or 5 members.
3. Monosaccharides also exist as optical isomers called enantiomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other. Their naming depends on their relation to D-glyceraldehyde.
The document discusses cholesterol, including its structure, functions, synthesis, regulation, and levels in the body. Some key points:
- Cholesterol is the major sterol in animal tissues and is present as free cholesterol or combined with fatty acids.
- It performs essential functions like being a membrane component, precursor for bile acids and steroid hormones, and is required for nerve transmission.
- Cholesterol is derived from diet, de novo synthesis in the body, and hydrolysis of cholesteryl esters.
- The rate-limiting enzyme for its synthesis is HMG-CoA reductase, which is regulated by feedback inhibition and hormones like insulin and glucagon.
This document provides information on the composition and metabolism of carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their biological significance as fuels, catalysts, and starting materials for other compounds. It then discusses the occurrence of carbohydrates such as starch, glycogen, and simple sugars in plants and animals. The document proceeds to classify carbohydrates and describe important types such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and mucopolysaccharides. It also summarizes key pathways in carbohydrate metabolism including glycolysis, glycogenesis, and the metabolism of glucose.
This document discusses lipids, including their definition, classification, structure and functions. It covers different types of lipids such as fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, sterols and lipoproteins. Key points include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and serve important structural and energy storage roles. Lipids form micelles to solubilize nonpolar molecules in aqueous environments.
Carbohydrates are one of the major classes of biological molecules and are the most abundant. They have many important functions including energy storage, structural components, and cell signaling. Carbohydrates exist as monomers, dimers, oligomers, and polymers. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are the simplest units and exist as open chains or rings. Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structures. Cyclization of monosaccharides forms rings called pyranoses and furanoses. The document defines important carbohydrate terms and classifications.
The document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the main dietary sources of carbohydrates and their functions, including providing energy. It describes the digestion of carbohydrates by salivary, pancreatic and intestinal enzymes into monosaccharides that are absorbed into the bloodstream. Glucose and galactose enter cells via active transport while fructose uses facilitated diffusion. The liver plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism, storing glucose and releasing it into circulation. Tissues take up glucose via different glucose transporters. The document outlines several major pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
This document discusses the chemistry and functions of carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and classifies them into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. The document discusses isomerism, mutarotation, epimers, and the reactions of monosaccharides. It describes the roles of carbohydrates as an energy source, precursor for other biomolecules, and structural component in cells. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose and their importance are highlighted.
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
1. Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar molecules present.
2. Monosaccharides exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. The rings can be pyranoses or furanoses depending on whether they have 6 or 5 members.
3. Monosaccharides also exist as optical isomers called enantiomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other. Their naming depends on their relation to D-glyceraldehyde.
The document discusses cholesterol, including its structure, functions, synthesis, regulation, and levels in the body. Some key points:
- Cholesterol is the major sterol in animal tissues and is present as free cholesterol or combined with fatty acids.
- It performs essential functions like being a membrane component, precursor for bile acids and steroid hormones, and is required for nerve transmission.
- Cholesterol is derived from diet, de novo synthesis in the body, and hydrolysis of cholesteryl esters.
- The rate-limiting enzyme for its synthesis is HMG-CoA reductase, which is regulated by feedback inhibition and hormones like insulin and glucagon.
This document provides information on the composition and metabolism of carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their biological significance as fuels, catalysts, and starting materials for other compounds. It then discusses the occurrence of carbohydrates such as starch, glycogen, and simple sugars in plants and animals. The document proceeds to classify carbohydrates and describe important types such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and mucopolysaccharides. It also summarizes key pathways in carbohydrate metabolism including glycolysis, glycogenesis, and the metabolism of glucose.
This document discusses lipids, including their definition, classification, structure and functions. It covers different types of lipids such as fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, sterols and lipoproteins. Key points include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and serve important structural and energy storage roles. Lipids form micelles to solubilize nonpolar molecules in aqueous environments.
Carbohydrates are one of the major classes of biological molecules and are the most abundant. They have many important functions including energy storage, structural components, and cell signaling. Carbohydrates exist as monomers, dimers, oligomers, and polymers. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are the simplest units and exist as open chains or rings. Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structures. Cyclization of monosaccharides forms rings called pyranoses and furanoses. The document defines important carbohydrate terms and classifications.
The document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the main dietary sources of carbohydrates and their functions, including providing energy. It describes the digestion of carbohydrates by salivary, pancreatic and intestinal enzymes into monosaccharides that are absorbed into the bloodstream. Glucose and galactose enter cells via active transport while fructose uses facilitated diffusion. The liver plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism, storing glucose and releasing it into circulation. Tissues take up glucose via different glucose transporters. The document outlines several major pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives joined by glycosidic bonds. They are classified as homopolymers or heteropolymers. Starch is a major homopolysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin, while glycogen is the animal equivalent found mainly in liver and muscle. Cellulose is an insoluble polymer of glucose that provides structure to plant cell walls. Mucopolysaccharides are heteropolymers containing amino sugars and acidic sugars. Common types include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, heparin, and heparan sulfate. Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of genetic disorders caused by
This document summarizes polysaccharides and glycans. It discusses homopolysaccharides including fructosan, galactosan, and glucosans such as starch and glycogen. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin and forms helical structures with iodine. Cellulose is composed of beta-glucose units linked by beta-1,4 bonds, forming long straight chains strengthened by hydrogen bonds. Glycosaminoglycans discussed include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate. Proteoglycans are composed of core proteins with covalently linked glycosaminoglycan side chains. They
1. The document discusses types and structural features of polysaccharides. It describes homopolysaccharides like starch, dextrin, inulin, glycogen, and cellulose.
2. Starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin subunits linked by alpha-glucosidic bonds. Dextrin is formed from starch hydrolysis and has a similar structure to amylopectin.
3. Inulin is a polymer of fructose typically with a terminal glucose. Glycogen stores glucose in animals and has highly branched alpha-linked subunits. Cellulose, the main component of plant cell walls, is composed of beta-glucose units.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important dietary and metabolic components. PUFAs can be synthesized in the body through a series of desaturation and elongation steps. Key PUFAs include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. PUFAs play roles in membrane structure and function, energy metabolism, and act as precursors to bioactive lipid mediators like eicosanoids and docosanoids. PUFA intake is associated with cardiovascular and other health benefits.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that can be broken down into monosaccharides through hydrolysis. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and can be further classified as aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they contain an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Disaccharides like sucrose are formed through a glycosidic linkage between two monosaccharide units, while polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides that can be homopolysaccharides containing the same sugar units or heteropolysaccharides with different sugar units. Carbohydrates serve important functions in the body as an energy source, for energy storage, and in the formation of structural molecules.
Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. Its chemical formula is C12H22O11 and it is commonly known as table sugar. Sucrose has potential health effects if ingested or contacted, but is considered low risk. It is used as a flavoring in formaldehyde for embalming and as a sweetener for foods and beverages. Interestingly, adding or removing molecules from sucrose can form formaldehyde, and artificial sweeteners may break down into formaldehyde in the body. Sucrose is important for this class as it is a chemical compound with a glycosidic linkage that can be broken through hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are organic biomolecules composed of polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. They are classified based on their monomer units into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and ribose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose contain two monomer units. Polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen are composed of many monomer units. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy storage roles in living organisms.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
WHAT IS CARBOHYDRATE? CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE? WHAT IS MONOSACCHARIDE? CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE. PHYSICAL PROPERTY. CHEMICAL PROPERTY. ATRUCTURAL FORMULA. METABOLISM . IMPORTANCE OF MONOSACCHARIDE. IMPORTANT FACT RELATED TO MONOSACCHARIDE. DISORDER OF MONOSACCHARIDE CONCLUSION. REFRANCES
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
Classification of polysaccharides, gluconeogenesis and glucogenolysis.Arunima Sur
This document discusses polysaccharides and glycogen metabolism. It begins by defining polysaccharides and classifying them into homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. Examples of homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Heteropolysaccharides include substances like hyaluronic acid. The document then explains gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors. Finally, it covers glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle to maintain blood glucose levels.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
Lipids are naturally occurring organic compounds that are soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water. They include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids are classified as simple lipids like triglycerides and waxes, or compound lipids like phospholipids. The main roles of lipids include serving as energy stores, components of cell membranes, and intermediaries in signaling pathways. Essential lipids like omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids must be obtained through diet as the body cannot produce them. Lipids are important for many biological functions including energy storage, cell membrane structure, hormone synthesis, and brain and vision health.
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
The lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds that include fats, oils, steroids, waxes, and related compounds. They share the properties of being relatively insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. Lipids serve important functions such as energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and insulation. They can also be classified based on their structure into simple lipids like triglycerides and complex lipids like phospholipids and glycolipids. Phospholipids and glycolipids are amphipathic molecules that form lipid bilayers, which are the basic structure of biological membranes.
some impor monosaccharide for BS students full notes.pptxSidraMahmood15
The monosaccharide consists of single unit which contains carbon chain of three to six carbon. They can combine through glycosidic bonds to form larger carbohydrates. The main function of monosaccharide is to produce and store energy. Glucose and fructose are the most available monosaccharide in nature.
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives joined by glycosidic bonds. They are classified as homopolymers or heteropolymers. Starch is a major homopolysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin, while glycogen is the animal equivalent found mainly in liver and muscle. Cellulose is an insoluble polymer of glucose that provides structure to plant cell walls. Mucopolysaccharides are heteropolymers containing amino sugars and acidic sugars. Common types include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, heparin, and heparan sulfate. Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of genetic disorders caused by
This document summarizes polysaccharides and glycans. It discusses homopolysaccharides including fructosan, galactosan, and glucosans such as starch and glycogen. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin and forms helical structures with iodine. Cellulose is composed of beta-glucose units linked by beta-1,4 bonds, forming long straight chains strengthened by hydrogen bonds. Glycosaminoglycans discussed include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate. Proteoglycans are composed of core proteins with covalently linked glycosaminoglycan side chains. They
1. The document discusses types and structural features of polysaccharides. It describes homopolysaccharides like starch, dextrin, inulin, glycogen, and cellulose.
2. Starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin subunits linked by alpha-glucosidic bonds. Dextrin is formed from starch hydrolysis and has a similar structure to amylopectin.
3. Inulin is a polymer of fructose typically with a terminal glucose. Glycogen stores glucose in animals and has highly branched alpha-linked subunits. Cellulose, the main component of plant cell walls, is composed of beta-glucose units.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important dietary and metabolic components. PUFAs can be synthesized in the body through a series of desaturation and elongation steps. Key PUFAs include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. PUFAs play roles in membrane structure and function, energy metabolism, and act as precursors to bioactive lipid mediators like eicosanoids and docosanoids. PUFA intake is associated with cardiovascular and other health benefits.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that can be broken down into monosaccharides through hydrolysis. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and can be further classified as aldoses or ketoses depending on whether they contain an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Disaccharides like sucrose are formed through a glycosidic linkage between two monosaccharide units, while polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides that can be homopolysaccharides containing the same sugar units or heteropolysaccharides with different sugar units. Carbohydrates serve important functions in the body as an energy source, for energy storage, and in the formation of structural molecules.
Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. Its chemical formula is C12H22O11 and it is commonly known as table sugar. Sucrose has potential health effects if ingested or contacted, but is considered low risk. It is used as a flavoring in formaldehyde for embalming and as a sweetener for foods and beverages. Interestingly, adding or removing molecules from sucrose can form formaldehyde, and artificial sweeteners may break down into formaldehyde in the body. Sucrose is important for this class as it is a chemical compound with a glycosidic linkage that can be broken through hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are organic biomolecules composed of polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. They are classified based on their monomer units into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and ribose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose contain two monomer units. Polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen are composed of many monomer units. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy storage roles in living organisms.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
WHAT IS CARBOHYDRATE? CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE? WHAT IS MONOSACCHARIDE? CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE. PHYSICAL PROPERTY. CHEMICAL PROPERTY. ATRUCTURAL FORMULA. METABOLISM . IMPORTANCE OF MONOSACCHARIDE. IMPORTANT FACT RELATED TO MONOSACCHARIDE. DISORDER OF MONOSACCHARIDE CONCLUSION. REFRANCES
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
Classification of polysaccharides, gluconeogenesis and glucogenolysis.Arunima Sur
This document discusses polysaccharides and glycogen metabolism. It begins by defining polysaccharides and classifying them into homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. Examples of homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Heteropolysaccharides include substances like hyaluronic acid. The document then explains gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors. Finally, it covers glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle to maintain blood glucose levels.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
Lipids are naturally occurring organic compounds that are soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water. They include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids are classified as simple lipids like triglycerides and waxes, or compound lipids like phospholipids. The main roles of lipids include serving as energy stores, components of cell membranes, and intermediaries in signaling pathways. Essential lipids like omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids must be obtained through diet as the body cannot produce them. Lipids are important for many biological functions including energy storage, cell membrane structure, hormone synthesis, and brain and vision health.
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
The lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds that include fats, oils, steroids, waxes, and related compounds. They share the properties of being relatively insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. Lipids serve important functions such as energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and insulation. They can also be classified based on their structure into simple lipids like triglycerides and complex lipids like phospholipids and glycolipids. Phospholipids and glycolipids are amphipathic molecules that form lipid bilayers, which are the basic structure of biological membranes.
some impor monosaccharide for BS students full notes.pptxSidraMahmood15
The monosaccharide consists of single unit which contains carbon chain of three to six carbon. They can combine through glycosidic bonds to form larger carbohydrates. The main function of monosaccharide is to produce and store energy. Glucose and fructose are the most available monosaccharide in nature.
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a primary energy source. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides include glycogen, starch, and cellulose. Glycogen functions as energy storage in animals, while cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls. Carbohydrates play important structural and functional roles throughout biology.
The document summarizes key biomolecules and concepts. It discusses carbohydrates including monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), and polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen). It also discusses protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary), enzymes, vitamins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and hormones. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are described as important macromolecules that make up biomolecules.
This document discusses carbohydrate chemistry and digestion. It defines carbohydrates and describes their functions in the body. It outlines the nomenclature of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose are explained. Important disaccharides like sucrose, lactose and maltose are defined. Polysaccharides discussed include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and heteroglycans. The process of carbohydrate digestion by salivary and pancreatic amylases and intestinal disaccharide-hydrolyzing enzymes is summarized. Lactose intolerance is also briefly explained, along with monosaccharide absorption mechanisms.
Lec 5 level 3-de(chemistry of carbohydrates)dream10f
This document discusses carbohydrates, including their definition, functions, nomenclature, classification, and digestion. Key points include:
- Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve as the main energy source. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded together, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
- Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides in the mouth, stomach and small intestine by
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified based on their structure and behavior during hydrolysis. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides break into two monosaccharides, such as sucrose into glucose and fructose. Polysaccharides yield many monosaccharide units and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy stores and structural components in plants and animals. They are also raw materials for many industries like textiles, paper, and breweries.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses and commonly exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers. Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, which serve structural roles like cellulose and chitin or storage roles like starch and glycogen. Carbohydrates play key roles through their diverse structures and functions.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Monosaccharides are aldoses or ketoses that exist as cyclic or linear structures. Polysaccharides function as energy storage molecules like starch and glycogen or provide structure to plant cell walls and insect exoskeletons like cellulose and chitin. Carbohydrates undergo oxidation reactions and form glycosidic bonds between monosaccharide units.
Carbohydrates have many important functions in living organisms. They serve as a storage form of energy (glycogen), act as structural components (cellulose in plants), and are involved in cell signaling. Glucose is the most abundant and important carbohydrate, being produced by photosynthesis in plants and used as an energy source. Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Monosaccharides like glucose exist in both open-chain and ring forms and have isomers that differ in structure. Disaccharides are formed by linking two monosaccharides, while polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides that can be either homopolym
Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols that serve several important functions in the body. They are the main sources of energy, used for energy storage as glycogen or starch, and structural components of cells and tissues. Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides and demonstrate various types of isomerism. Important carbohydrates include glucose, cellulose, glycogen, hyaluronic acid, and the blood group antigens involved in blood typing. Carbohydrates play essential roles in energy storage, structure, lubrication, cellular processes, and immunity.
Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols that serve several important functions in the body. They are the main sources of energy, used for energy storage as glycogen or starch, and structural components of cells and tissues. Carbohydrates exist as monomers, dimers, and polymers and show various types of isomers. Important biomolecules derived from carbohydrates include glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, and blood group antigens. Diseases and medical treatments are related to carbohydrates, such as the use of cardiac glycosides for heart failure and heparin's role as an anticoagulant.
In general, carbohydrates are neutral chemical compounds containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and have the empirical formula (CH2O)n, where n is 3 or more.
- Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. They include sugars, starches, and fiber.
- Sugars can be simple monosaccharides like glucose or combined to form more complex disaccharides and polysaccharides.
- Carbohydrates exist as both linear chains and ring structures. The ring form is favored in water.
- Carbohydrates serve as the primary energy source for the body but excess consumption can contribute to obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It begins by classifying carbohydrates as simple or complex, and as reducing or non-reducing. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are introduced. Glucose is discussed as a key monosaccharide, with its preparation from sucrose and starch. Structural features of glucose such as cyclic and linear forms are described. Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are presented as important disaccharides. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are highlighted as significant polysaccharides. Stereoisomers including anomers are defined. The biological importance of carbohydrates as an energy source and in structural roles is summarized. Common carbohydrate chemical
Carbohydrates can be broadly classified into 3 types: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down, while polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. Carbohydrates serve important structural and energy storage functions in living organisms. They undergo various types of isomerism and chemical reactions important for their identification and analysis.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
• CHO : CHO may be defined as polyhydroxy aldehyde,
ketones or acids and their derivatives.
• CHO : Based on their digestibility & solubility , the CHO
divided in to two parts
– Soluble CHO / easily digest - NFE ( Sugar, Starch,
Hemicelluloses)
– Insoluble CHO / less digest in non ruminant but digestible
in ruminant (Crude fibre, cellulose, Ligniin)
• Carbohydrates are neutral chemical compounds
containing the elements carbon, hydrogen & oxygen &
have empirical formula (CH2O)n where n is three or
more.
CARBOHYDRATES
Function of carbohydrates
• Important source of energy
• As important food reserves
• In the storage of Liver and muscle of the liver
Glycogen
Liver glycogen muscle glycogen
• In the seed →as starc
• Transfer of genetic characteristic of the cell
• Carbohydrates make the matrix of connective
tissue eg. Hyaluronic acid
• They make structural part of cartilage, bone
and tendons eg. Chondroitin sulphate
• Oxidation of protein & fat as they are
important component.
• Essential component of milk as lactose.
• It helpful in absorption of calcium &
phosphorus in younger animals.
• They help in peristaltic movement of food.
Classification of carbohydrates:
17
In nutrition, carbohydrates are classied into five groups:
• (1) monosaccharides (also known as simple sugars);
• (2) disaccharides (containing 2 monosaccharide units);
• (3) oligosaccharides (containing 3–10 monosaccharide
units);
• (4) polysaccharides (containing more than 10
monosaccharide units); and
• (5) conjugated carbohydrates. covalently bound to lipids or
proteins to form glycolipids or glycoproteins, respectively.
Polysaccharides are subdivided into
– Homopolysaccharides (containing only one type of
monosaccharide) and
– Heteropolysaccharides (containing more than one type of
monosaccharide).
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides
– Trioses (C3H6O3) Glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
– Tetroses (C4H8O4) Erythrose
– Pentoses (C5H10O5) Aarabinase, xylose, xylulose, ribose,
ribulose, and 5-deoxyribose
– Hexoses (C6H12O6) Glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose
– Heptoses (C7H14O7) Sedoheptulose, mannoheptulose (in
avocados), and -glycero--manno-heptose
• Disaccharides Sucrose (-α-glucose and -α-fructose), lactose
(milk sugar; -α-glucose and -α-galactose), maltose, isomaltose,
cellobiose, α,α-trehalose, α,β-trehalose, and β,β-trehalose)
• Oligosaccharides
– Trisaccharides, Rafnose, kestose, maltotriose (three units of glucose),
planteose, and melezitose (in sweet exudates of many trees and in
insects), and panose (synthesized by microbes)
– Tetrasaccharides Stachyose and lychnose (1-α-galactosyl-rafnose)
18
• Polysaccharides
– Homoglycans
• Pentosans (C5H8O4)n, for example, arabans and xylans
• Hexosans (C6H12O6)n, for example, starch, cellulose,
mannans, levans, and glycogen
– Heteroglycansd Hemicelluloses, pectins, exudate
gums, seaweed polysaccharides (algin, carrageenans,
agar, aminopolysaccharides [e.g., chondroitin and
hyal
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on Earth. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are five major classifications of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and nucleotides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are formed through the joining of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides allow for large storage of glucose and include starch, glycogen, and dietary fiber such as cellulose. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structure, and components of proteins.
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Carbohydrates classification, biochemical properties, isomerism and qualitative tests.
1.
2. • Definition:
Carbohydrates are defined chemically as aldehyde
or ketone derivatives of the higher polyhydric
alcohols, or compounds which yield these
derivatives on hydrolysis.
3. Biomedical Importance
• Chief source of energy.
• Most abundant dietary source of energy. Brain cells
and RBCs are almost wholly dependent on
carbohydrates as the energy source.
• Participate in the structure of cell membrane &
cellular functions (cell growth, adhesion and
fertilization).
• Constituents of compound lipids and conjugated
proteins.
• Degradation products act as “promoters” or ‘catalysts’.
• Lactose principal sugar of milk—in lactating mammary
gland.
4. • Constituents of mucopolysaccharides which
form the ground substance of connective
tissues.
• Inherited deficiency of certain enzymes in
metabolic pathways of different carbohydrates
can cause diseases, e.g. galactosemia,
glycogen storage diseases (GSDs), lactose
intolerance, etc.
• Derangement of glucose metabolism is seen in
diabete smellitus.
• Certain carbohydrate derivatives are used as
drugs like cardiac glycosides/antibiotics.
5. • The Glycemic Index (GI) is a relative ranking of carbohydrate in
foods according to how they affect blood glucose levels.
Carbohydrates with a low GI value (55 or less) are more slowly
digested, absorbed and metabolised and cause a lower and
slower rise in blood glucose and, therefore usually, insulin
levels. High GI value = more than 70.
8. Monosaccharides
• Also called ‘simple’ sugars are those which
cannot be hydrolysed further into simpler
forms.
• General formula : Cn(H2O)n
They can be subdivided further:
(a) Depending upon the number of carbon
atoms they possess, as trioses, tetroses,
pentoses, hexoses
(b) Depending upon whether aldehyde (– CHO)
or ketone (– CO) groups are present as
aldoses or ketoses
9.
10. Trioses
• Both D-glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
occur in the form of phosphate esters, as
intermediates in glycolysis. They are also the
precursors of glycerol, which the organism
synthesises and incorporates into various types
of lipids.
Tetroses
• Erythrose-4-P occurs as an intermediate in
hexosemonophosphate shunt which is an
alternative pathway for glucose oxidation.
11. Pentoses
• D-ribose is a constituent of nucleic acid RNA; also
as a constituent of certain coenzymes, e.g. FAD,
NAD,coenzyme A.
• D-2-deoxyribose is a constituent of DNA.
• Pentosuria is an inborn error of metabolism
which is characterized by the excretion of 1 to 4 g
of the pentose L-xylulose in the urine per day.
• Pentosuria is the result of a defect in the
glucuronic acid oxidation pathway. In this route of
carbohydrate metabolism the carboxyl carbon
atom of D-glucuronic acid is removed in a series
of reactions, giving rise to the pentose L-xylulose.
12. Hexoses
Glucose
• It is the chief physiological sugar present in
normal blood.
• All tissues utilise glucose for energy.
Erythrocytes and Brain cells utilise glucose
solely for energy purposes.
• Stored as glycogen in liver and muscles mainly.
13. Galactose
• Occurs as a constituent of milk sugar lactose and
also in tissues as a constituent of galactolipid and
glycoproteins.
• It is an epimer of glucose and differs in
orientation of H and OH on carbon-4.
• It is less sweet than glucose and less soluble in
water.
• Galactose is metabolized by conversion initially to
glucose 1-phosphate (G1P), which can then be
converted either to G6P or to glycogen
• It is dextrorotatory in nature.
14. Fructose
• It is a ketohexose and commonly called as
fruit sugar, as it occurs free in fruits.
• Pure fructose is much sweeter than other
types of sugar.
• Seminal fluid is rich in fructose and sperms
utilise fructose for energy.
• Crystalline fructose is used in enhancing the
taste in food industries.
• Fructose does not acutely raise blood glucose.
As such, fructose has a lower glycemic index
than do starch-based foods.
15. D-mannose
• It does not occur free in nature but is widely
distributed in combination as the
polysaccharide mannan, e.g. in ivory nut.
• In the body, it is found as a constituent of
glycoproteins.
Sedoheptulose
• It is a ketoheptose found in plants of the
sedum family. Its phosphate is important as an
intermediate in the HMP-shunt and has been
identified as a product of photosynthesis
17. DISACCHARIDES
• Three most common disaccharides of
biological importance are: Maltose, Lactose
and Sucrose.
• Their general molecular formula is C12H22O11
and they are hydrolysed by hot acids or
corresponding enzymes as follows:
C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
18. Maltose
• Maltose or malt sugar is an intermediary in
acid hydrolysis of starch and can also be
obtained by enzyme hydrolysis of starch.
• In the body, dietary starch digestion by
Amylase in gut yields maltose, which requires
a specific enzyme maltase to form glucose.
19. Lactose
• Lactose is milk sugar and found in appreciable
quantities in milk .
• It is not very soluble and is not so sweet.
• On hydrolysis it yields one molecule of D-Glucose
and one molecule of D-Galactose.
20. Sucrose
• Ordinary table sugar is sucrose. It is also called as
‘Cane sugar’, as it can be obtained from sugarcane.
• Also obtained from sugar beet, and sugar maple.
Also occurs free in most fruits and vegetables, e.g.
pineapples,and carrots. It is very soluble and very
sweet and on hydrolysis yields one molecule of D-
Glucose and one molecule of D-Fructose.
21. Sucrose is dextrorotatory (+62.5°) but its hydrolytic products
are laevorotatory because fructose has a greater laevorotation
than the dextrorotation of glucose. As the hydrolytic products
invert the rotation, the resulting mixtures of glucose and
fructose (hydrolytic products) is called as Invert Sugar and the
process is called as Inversion.
22. POLYSACCHARIDES
• Polysaccharides are more complex substances.
Some are polymers of a single
monosaccharide and are termed as
Homopolysaccharides (Homoglycans),
e.g.starch, glycogen.
• Heteropolysaccharides (heteroglycans)
contain two or more different
monosaccharide units.
Eg: Hyaluronic Acid, Heparin
23. HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
(HOMOGLYCANS)
Starch
• Starch is a polymer of glucose, and
occurs in many plants as storage foods. It
may be found in the leaves, and stem, as
well as in roots, fruits and seeds where it
is usually present in greater
concentration.
24. Glycogen
• Glycogen is the reserve carbohydrate of the
animal, hence it is called as animal starch.
• It has been shown to be present in plants
which have no chlorophyll systems,
e.g. in fungi and yeasts. It is also found in
large amounts in oysters and other shell
fish.
In higher animals, it is deposited in the liver
and muscle as storage material which are
readily available as immediate source of
energy.
25. Cellulose
• Cellulose is a polymer of glucose. It is not
hydrolyzed readily by dilute acids, but heating
with fairly high concentrations of acids yields, the
disaccharide Cellobiose and D-Glucose.
• Cellobiose is made up of two molecules of D-
Glucose linked together by β-Glucosidic linkage
between C1 and C4 of adjacent glucose units.
Agar
• It is a homopolysaccharide. Made up of repeated
units of galactose which is sulphated. Present in
seaweed. It is obtained from them
26.
27. HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES/
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES (MPS)
• In general,
heteropolysaccharides contain two or
more different monosaccharide units.
• They are long chains of sugar molecules
that are found throughout the body,
often in mucus and in fluid around the
joints.
28. Hyaluronic Acid
• A sulphate free mucopolysaccharide.
• It is composed of repeating units of N-acetyl
glucosamine and D-Glucuronic acid.
29. Heparin
• It is also called α-Heparin. It is an anticoagulant present in
liver and it is produced mainly by mast cells of liver
(Originally isolated from liver).
• In addition, it is also found in lungs, thymus, spleen, walls of
large arteries, skin and in small quantities in blood.
• It is a polymer of repeating disaccharide units
of D-Glucosamine and L-Iduronic acid.
30. Chondroitin Sulphates
• They are principal MPS in the ground substance of
mammalian tissues and cartilage. They occur in
combination with proteins and are called as
Chondroproteins.
• Four chondroitin sulphates have been isolated so
far. They are named as chondroitin SO4 A, B, C and D.
31.
32. Isomerism
• Isomerism is the Phenomenon in Which More
than One Compounds have the Same
Chemical Formula but Different Structures.
33. Structural Isomerism
• Structural Isomers have the same molecular
formula but different arrangements of atoms.
• There are three types of structural
isomers: chain isomers, functional
group isomers and positional isomers.
• Eg : Aldose-Ketose Isomerism
Glucose and Fructose are isomers of each other.
Molecular Formula: C6H12O6
34.
35. Stereoisomerism
• Stereoisomers are molecules that share the same
molecular formula and arrangement of atoms,
differ from one another in 3-dimensional space.
• Geometric isomers (called cis/trans isomers) can
arise when a double bond or ring is present in a
molecule.
• Chiral carbon is the carbon atom about which all
the 4 groups are different .
• D and L enantiomers refer to the configurational
stereochemistry of the molecule. L isomers have
the hydroxyl group attached to the left side of the
asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl,
while D isomers have the hydroxyl group on the
right side
38. Optical isomerism
• Optical isomers are named like this because of
their effect on plane polarized light.
• Optical activity describes the phenomenon by
which chiral molecules are observed to rotate
polarized light in either a clockwise (Right side)
or Anticlockwise (Lest side) direction.
• Right = dextrorotatory (+) (d)
• Left = levorotatory (-) (l)
• A racemic mixture is a 50:50 mix of two
enantiomers. No matter how many molecules are
in a mixture, it is racemic if there are equal
numbers of the two enantiomers.
39.
40. Epimerism
• Those stereoisomers which are differing in its
configuration at only one chiral carbon atom
are called as Epimers.
• For example, glucose and galactose are
Epimers of each other.
• They differ in only in the position of hydroxyl
group at C4 (chiral carbon atom).
41.
42. Anomerism
• Anomers are cyclic monosaccharides or
glycosides that are epimers, differing from
each other in the configuration of C-1 if they
are aldoses or in the configuration at C-2 if
they are ketoses.
• Eg: α-D-Glucopyranose and β-D-glucopyranose
are anomers.
43.
44.
45. Benedict’s test
• The principle of Benedict's test is that when
reducing sugars are heated in the presence of
an alkali(pH 10.6), they get converted to
powerful reducing compounds known as
enediols.
• Enediols reduce the cupric ions (Cu2+) present
in the Benedict's reagent to cuprous ions
(Cu+) which get precipitated as insoluble red
copper oxide.
• Any sugar with free aldehyde/keto group will
reduce the Benedict's reagent. Therefore, this
is not specific for glucose.
46.
47. Osazone Formation
• All reducing sugars will form osazones
with excess of phenyl hydrazine when
kept at boiling temperature.
• Glucose, fructose, galactose and
mannose formed needle shape osazone.
• Maltose formed sun flower
shape osazone.
48.
49. Molisch’s test
• All carbohydrates when treated with conc.
sulphuric acid undergo dehydration to give
fufural compounds. These compounds
condense with Alpha-napthol to form colored
compounds.
• Molish test is given by sugars with at least five
carbons because it involves furfural
derivatives, which are five carbon
compounds.
50.
51. Fehling’s test
• Same principle as benedicts test
• Fehling’s A contains 7% copper sulphate and
Fehling’s B contains sodium potassium
tartarate.
• Fehling's test can be used as a generic test for
monosaccharides. It will give a positive result
for aldose monosaccharides (due to the
oxidisable aldehyde group) but also for
ketosemonosaccharides, as they are
converted to aldoses by the base in the
reagent, and then give a positive result.
52.
53. Barfoed’s Test
• This test is based on the same principle as
Benedict’s test.
• But, the test medium is acidic.
• In acidic medium (pH 4.6) monosaccharides
react faster than disaccharide.
• Barfoed’s reagent contains copper acetate in
glacial acetic acid.
54.
55. Seliwanoff’s test
• Seliwanoff’s test is a chemical test which
distinguishes between aldose and ketose
sugars.
• Ketohexoses like fructose on treatment
with HCl form 5-hydroxymethylfurfural,
which on condensation with resorcinol
gives a cherry red complex.