Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides". Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups: 1. Monosaccharides 2. Disaccharides 3. Oligosaccharides 4. Polysaccharides Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include: 1. Glucose 2. Fructose 3. Galactose Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are: 1. Maltose 2. Lactose 3. Sucrose Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on. Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into: 1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes: 1. Starch 2. Glycogen 3. Cellulose 4. Inulin 5. Dextrin 6. Dextran 7. Chitin Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.

1. “CARBOHYDRATES”
• MONOSACCHARIDES
• DISACCHARIDES
• OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• POLYSACCHARIDES

2. CARBOHYDRATES
DEFINITION:
 Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield
such compounds on hydrolysis. Some carbohydrates also contain nitrogen,
phosphorus, or sulfur.
 A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon(C), Hydrogen(H),
and Oxygen(O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in
water); in other words, with the empirical formula (𝑪𝑯𝟐O)n.
 Simple carbohydrates are also known as “SUGARS” or “SACCHARIDES” (Latin
saccharum=sugars)

3.  Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth.
 Carbohydrates are mostly derived from plants. In plants, energy from the sun is
used to convert carbon dioxide and water into the carbohydrate glucose. Many of
the glucose molecules are made into long-chain polymers of starch that store
energy.
 Animals synthesize carbohydrate from lipid glycerol and amino acids. Glucose is a
major metabolic fuel of mammals and a universal fuel for the fetus.
 Other sugars are converted into glucose in the liver.
 About 65% of the foods in our diet consists of carbohydrates. Each day we utilize
carbohydrates in foods such as bread, pasta, potatoes, and rice.

4. Biomedical importance of carbohydrates:
 During digestion and cellular metabolism, carbohydrates are converted into glucose.
Which is oxidized further in our cells to provide our bodies with energy and to
provide the cells with carbon atoms for building molecules of protein, lipids, and
nucleic acids.
 Carbohydrates are the most abundant source of energy. Brain cells and RBCs are
almost wholly dependent on carbohydrates as the energy source.
 Carbohydrates also serve as storage form of energy-Glycogen in animals and starch
in plants.
 Carbohydrates participate in the structure of cell membrane & cellular functions
(cell growth, adhesion, and fertilization)

5. • Certain carbohydrate derivatives are used as drugs, like cardiac glycosides /
antibiotics.
• Plays an important role in defense mechanism i.e. Immunoglobins formed in
response to antigens in the body.
• Heparin is a polysaccharide in our body prevents clotting in the bloodstream.
• Structural components such as cellulose of plants, ground substances of
cartilage and bone i.e. synovial fluid contains hyaluronic acid which helps in
lubrications, promotes wound healing and shock absorbing.

6. SOME GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES:
 ASYMMETRIC CARBON: Carbon that binds 4 different groups or has 4
different groups attached to it is called “ Asymmetric Carbon”
 ISOMERISM: Each of two or more compounds with same formula but a
different arrangement of atoms in the molecule. e.g: Glucose, fructose,
galactose, mannose

7. • STEREOISOMERISM: Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules with the same
chemical formula but a different atomic arrangement. As a consequence they
possess similar chemical and physical properties. There are two types of
stereoisomers:
1. ENANTIOMERS: enantiomers are stereoisomers that are chiral or mirror images
of each other, much as one’s left and right hands are the same but opposite.
2. DIASTEREOISOMERS: Diastereoisomers are stereoisomers which are not related
as mirror images.

8. • D-SERIES AND L-SERIES: The orientation of H and OH groups around the
carbon atom just adjacent to the terminal alcohol carbon, e.g. C-atom 5 in the
glucose determines the series. When the -OH group on this carbon is on the right,
it belongs to D-series, when the –OH group is on the left, it is a member of L-
series.
• MUTAROTATION: Gradual change in specific optical rotation of a sugar solution
due to inter conversion of alpha and beta forms of sugar until equal equilibrium is
reached.

9. • EPIMERS: Two sugars which differ from one another only in configuration around
single carbon atom are termed as epimers.
• ANOMERS: Anomer is also an epimer where configuration is different at the
hemiacetal or anomeric carbon in the cyclic form.

10. • REDUCING SUGARS: Carbohydrates with free aldehyde or a free ketone group
are reducing sugars. Reducing sugars can be oxidized by an oxidizing agent.
EXAMPLE: glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose
• NON-REDUCING SUGARS: In non-reducing sugars aldehyde or ketone group is
not free but instead utilized in bond formation. Non-reducing sugars can not be
oxidized by an oxidizing agent.
EXAMPLE: sucrose, glycogen, inulin
• OPTICAL ACTIVITY: When a beam of light is passed through a solution it will
rotate on the right or left. If the rotation is on the right side it is Dextrorotatory
and if it is on the left side it is Levorotatory.
• OSAZONE FORMATION: All monosaccharides form osazones and all
disaccharides except sucrose forms osazone.

11. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES:
• Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided
into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides

12. MONOSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free
aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups.
• They are the simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units.
• Monosaccharides are the fundamental building blocks of carbohydrates.
• Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose

13. GLUCOSE:
• Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide found in nature.
• Glucose is also known as dextrose, blood sugar, and grape sugar. Glucose is
broken down in cells to produce energy.
• Glucose is an important monosaccharide in that it provides both energy and
structure to many organism.
• Glucose molecules can be broken down in glycolysis, providing energy and
precursors for cellular respiration. If a cell dose not need energy at the
moment, glucose can be stored by combining it with other monosaccharides.
• Plants store these long chains as starch, which can be disassembled and used
as energy later.

14. • Animals store chains of glucose in the polysaccharide glycogen, which can
store a lot of energy.
• The chemical formula for glucose is 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟏𝟐𝑶𝟔.

15. GALACTOSE:
• Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose,
i.e., 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟏𝟐𝑶𝟔
• It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one
hydroxyl group. This difference, however, gives galactose different chemical and
biochemical properties to glucose.
• Galactose is an energy-providing nutrient and also a necessary basic substrate
for the biosynthesis of many macromolecules in the body.

16. FRUCTOSE:
• Fructose is more commonly found together with glucose and sucrose in
honey and fruit juices. The chemical formula for fructose is 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟏𝟐𝑶𝟔
• Fructose is very sweet sugar. It occurs as a constituent of sucrose and also of
the polysaccharide inulin. It is a levorotatory and hence is also called
laevulose.
• Seminal fluid is rich in fructose and spermatozoa utilizes fructose for energy.

18. SUBDIVISIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES:
• Monosaccharides can be subdivided further:
a. Depending upon the number of carbon atom they possess, as trioses, tetroses,
pentoses, hexoses, etc.
b. Depending upon whether aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone (-CO) groups are present
as aldoses or ketoses.

19. PROPERTIESOFMONOSACCHARIDES:
• Monosaccharides are colorless, crystalline solids and are very soluble in water but
slightly soluble in ethanol.
• Monosaccharides are mostly sweet in taste. Monosaccharides are solid at room
temperature.
• Monosaccharides are non-electrolytes, having a high melting temperature. Most of
the monosaccharides exhibit optical activity.
• Monosaccharides consists of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit.
• Monosaccharides are reducing sugars, they reduce mild oxidizing agents such as
Tollen’s or Benedict’s reagents.

20. • Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They cannot be broken
down into simpler compounds, therefore, they do not undergo hydrolysis.
• Due to the presence of aldehydic group, monosaccharides can undergo oxidation to
form carboxylic acids.
• Monosaccharides can also form esters because they behave as alcohol due to the
presence of the multiple hydroxyl groups.
• Monosaccharides can form osazone. It is useful means of preparing crystalline
derivatives of sugars. Osazones have characteristic
1. Melting points
2. Crystal structures
3. Precipitation time and thus are valuable in identification of sugars.

21. BIOMEDICALIMPORTANCEOFMONOSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides are used to produce and store energy. Most organisms create
energy by breaking down the monosaccharide glucose, and harvesting the energy
released from the bonds.
• Other monosaccharides are used to form long fibers, which can be used as a form
of cellular structure.
• Plants create cellulose to serve this function, while some bacteria can produce a
similar cell wall from slightly different polysaccharides. Even animal cells
surround themselves with a complex matrix of polysaccharides, all made from
smaller monosaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are the building blocks of complex sugars . Monosaccharides
are part of genetic material (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA)

22. DISACCHARIDES
• Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of
monosaccharide on hydrolysis is called Disaccharides.
• The general formula for disaccharides is 𝑪𝒏(𝑯𝟐𝑶)𝒏−𝟏
• The disaccharides are formed by the union of two constituent
monosaccharides with the elimination of one molecule of water.
• Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. lactose
3. Sucrose

23. MALTOSE:
• Maltose is also known as Malt sugar.
• Maltose is formed by joining of two glucose units by 𝜶-1,4-glycosidic linkage.
• Maltose is produced by partial hydrolysis of starch either by salivary or
pancreatic amylase.
• Maltose has a free active group and hence exhibits reducing properties,
mutarotation and 𝜶 − 𝜷 isomerism.

25. LACTOSE:
• Lactose is known as milk sugar. It is found in milk and milk products.
• Lactose is made up of galactose and glucose with 𝜷 −1,4 glycosidic linkage.
• One of the anomeric carbon is free thus lactose is a reducing sugar.
• LACTOSE INTOLERANCE: In order for lactose to be absorbed from the intestine
and into the body, it must first split into glucose and galactose. The glucose and
galactose are then absorbed by the cells lining the small intestine. The enzyme
that splits lactose into glucose is called Lactase and it is located on the surface of
the cells lining the small intestine. When there is a deficiency of lactase, the
lactose in the intestine cannot be split for digestion. This deficiency of lactase will
cause lactose intolerance which will result in diarrhea, abdominal pain, and gas
when lactose is consumed by a lactose intolerant person.

27. SUCROSE:
• Sucrose is also known as table sugar and cane sugar, as it can be obtained from
sugar cane.
• Sucrose is also obtained from sugar beet, and sugar maple. It also occur free in
most fruits and vegetables, e.g., pineapples and carrots
• Sucrose is very soluble and very sweet in taste. Sucrose on hydrolysis yields one
molecule of D-Glucose and one molecule of D-Fructose .
• Sucrose has 𝜷-1-2 glycosidic linkage.
• Both anomeric carbons of the monosaccharides in sucrose are bonded, therefore,
sucrose is not a reducing sugar and will not show mutarotation characters.

28. INVERT SUGARS AND ‘INVERSION’:
• Sucrose is dextrorotatory (+62.5) but its hydrolytic products are levorotatory
because fructose has a greater specific levorotation than the dextrorotation of
glucose. As the hydrolytic products invert the rotation, the resulting mixtures of
glucose and fructose (hydrolytic products) is called as Invert Sugar and the
process is called as INVERSION. Honey is largely ‘invert sugar’.

30. PROPERTIESOFDISACCCHARIDES:
• All disaccharides are soluble in water. Disaccharides give a sweet taste.
• Disaccharides are solid, crystalline substances, from a slightly white to
brownish color and have optical activity.
• Disaccharides are sugar molecules composed of two monosaccharides.
• All disaccharides can not pass through the plasma membrane of the cell. Or,
there is no carrier enzyme that can carry disaccharides to move across the
plasma membrane.

31. • During hydrolysis, disaccharides are split into their constituent
monosaccharides due to the rupture of glycosidic bonds between them.
• Disaccharides have simple, linear, unbranched or branched structures.
• Among disaccharides, maltose and lactose are reducing sugars, while
sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

32. BIOMEDICALIMPORTANCEOFDISACCHARIDES
• Dietary disaccharides, just as the other carbohydrates, are a source of energy.
• Disaccharides are consumed and digested so as to obtain monosaccharides that are
important metabolites for ATP synthesis.
• Disaccharides are found in many foods and are often added as sweeteners. Sucrose,
for example, is table sugar, and it is the most common disaccharide that humans
eat.
• Lactose is found in breast milk and provides nutrition for infants. Maltose is a
sweetener often found in chocolates and other candies.

33. • Plants store energy in the form of disaccharides like sucrose and it is also used
for transporting nutrients in the phloem.
• Plants also use disaccharides to transport monosaccharides like glucose,
fructose, and galactose between cells.
• Packaging monosaccharides into disaccharides makes the molecule less likely to
break down during transport.

34. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that yield more than 2 and less than
10 molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• The oligosaccharide is formed by the joining of monosaccharide units via
glycosidic bonds.
• Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them
oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,
pentasaccharides and so on.

35. TRISACCHARIDES: Trisaccharides are oligosaccharides comprised of three
monosaccharides.
EXAMPLE: 1. Maltotriose: glucose + glucose + glucose
2. Raffinose: galactose + glucose + fructose
3. Ketose: glucose + fructose + fructose
TETRASACCHARIDES: Tetrasaccharides are oligosaccharides comprised of four
monosaccharides.
EXAMPLE: 1. Stachyose: galactose + galactose + glucose + fructose
2. Sesamose: galactose + galactose + fructose + glucose

36. PENTASACCHARIDES: Pentasaccharides are oligosaccharides composed of five
monosaccharides
EXAMPLE: 1. Verbascose: galactose + galactose + galactose + glucose +
fructose
HEXASACCHARIDES: Hexasaccharides are oligosaccharides composed of six
monosaccharides
EXAMPLE: 1. Ajugose: galactose + galactose + galactose + galactose +
glucose + fructose

37. PROPERTIESOFOLIGOSACCHARIDES:
• Oligosaccharides have a sweet taste.
• Oligosaccharides are soluble in water.
• On hydrolysis oligosaccharides releases more than two monosaccharides.
• In oligosaccharides, the monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds.
• Some oligosaccharides are found in combination with proteins. Such
oligosaccharides are called Glycoproteins.
• Oligosaccharides are commonly found as side chains of polypeptides.

38. BIOMEDICALIMPORTANCEOFOLIGOSACCHARIDES:
• Oligosaccharides have many important functions including cell recognition
and cell binding.
• An important example of oligosaccharides cell recognition is the role of
glycolipids in determining blood types.
• Glycolipids have an important role in the immune response.
• Many cells produce specific carbohydrate-binding proteins known as lectins,
which mediate cell adhesion with oligosaccharides.

39. POLYSACCHARIDES
• Polysaccharides are polymers containing 10 or more monosaccharide units attached
together.
• General formula for polysaccharides is (𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟏𝟎𝑶𝟓)n
• Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans.
• Polysaccharides consist of repeat units of monosaccharides or their derivatives,
held together by glycosidic bonds.
• Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides
2. Heteropolysaccharides

40. HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES:
• Homopolysaccharides are also known as homoglycans.
• Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units.
• Homopolysaccharides can be branched or unbranched.
• EXAMPLE: starch, glycogen, cellulose, inulin, dextrin, dextran, chitin

41. STARCH:
• Starch is a white organic chemical that is produced by all green plants.
• Starch is the main digestible polysaccharide in our diet.
• Starch is the storage form of carbohydrate in plants.
• Starch is a branched homopolysaccharide. It is branched after every 24-30
molecules.
• Glucose monomers in starch are joined in a 𝜶-1,4 glycosidic linkage.

42. • Sources of starch are: wheat, rice, corn, rye, barley, potatoes, tubers, yams, etc.
• The branched form of starch is known as Amylopectin and the unbranched form of
starch is known as Amylose.
• AMYLOSE: amylose is in the form of straight chain linked together with 𝜶-1,4
linkages indicating 300-5,500 glucose units per molecules. Generally it is water
soluble and gives blue color with iodine.
• AMYLOPECTINS: It contain beside straight chain several branched chains,
which are arranged in 𝜶-1,4 and 𝜷-1,6 linkage units. One molecule of amylopectin
contains 50,000 to 5,00,000 glucose molecules. It is insoluble in water and gives
purple color with iodine.

43. AMYLOSE
AMYLOPECTIN

44. GLYCOGEN:
• Glycogen is the polysaccharide that is similar to amylopectin, but is more highly
branched.
• Glycogen is a storage homopolysaccharides found in animals and humans. Thus
it is also known as Animal Starch.
• Glycogen is stored in muscle and liver.
• In the liver, glycogen synthesis and degradation are regulated to maintain blood
glucose levels as required to meet the needs of the organisms as a whole.

45. • In muscle, these processes are regulated to meet the energy needs of the muscle
itself.
• The concentration of glycogen is higher in the liver than in muscle.
• Glycogen contains both 𝜶 (1,4) links and 𝜶 (1,6) branches at every 8 to 10
glucose units.
• Complete hydrolysis of glycogen yields glucose.
• With iodine, glycogen gives a red-violet color.
• Glycogen is dextrorotatory. Formation of glycogen from glucose is called as
Glycogenesis and break down of glycogen to form glucose is called as
Glycogenolysis.

47. CELLULOSE:
• Cellulose is known as structural polysaccharide, as it is the main substance
found in cell walls and helps the plants to remain stiff and strong.
• Cellulose is an unbranched homopolysaccharide, made up of thousands of
glucose molecules.
• Glucose units in glycogen are bonded by 𝜷(1,4) glycosidic linkage.
• The chain of glucose units are straight. This allows chains to align next to each
other to form a strong rigid structure, providing rigidity to plants.

48. • On complete hydrolysis cellulose yields glucose. Cellulose is the most abundant
of all carbohydrates.
• Cellulose is tasteless, odorless, and insoluble in water and most organic solvents.
Cellulose gives no color with iodine.
• Mammals lack any enzyme that hydrolyzes the 𝜷-1,4 bonds, and so cannot digest
cellulose.
• Cellulose is an important source of “bulk” in the diet, and the major component
of dietary fiber.
• Cellulose relieves constipation, decreases cholesterol absorption, and decreases
glucose from intestine.

50. INULIN:
• Inulin is a long chain homoglycan composed of D-Fructose units with repeating 𝜷-
1,2 linkages.
• Inulin is an unbranched homopolysaccharide. It has lower molecular weight than
starch.
• On hydrolysis, inulin yields fructose.
• Inulin is a reserve carbohydrate.
• SOURCES: Onions, Garlic, and Dandelions

52. DEXTRIN:
• Dextrin is produced by the partial hydrolysis of starch along with maltose and
glucose.
• Dextrin is used as mucilages (glues).
• Dextrin is used in infant formulas ( prevent the curdling of milk in baby’s
stomach.
• Dextrin is also used as thickening agents in food processing.

54. DEXTRAN:
• Dextrin is a high molecular weight homopolysaccharide synthesized by some
micro organisms.
• Dextrin contains 𝜶(1,4), 𝜶(1,6), and 𝜶(1,3) linkages with molecular weight :
40,000; 70,000; 75,000.
• Dextran are used as plasma expanders ( treatment of shock)
• Dextran is also used as molecular sieves to separate proteins and other large
molecules.
• Dextran is also used as component of dental plaque.

56. CHITIN:
• Chitin is a large, structural polysaccharide made from chains of glucose.
• Chitin is composed of units N-acetyl-glucosamine with 𝜷-1,4 glycosidic linkages.
• Chitin is present in exoskeleton of insects and the cell wall of fungi.

58. HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES:
• Heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types
monosaccharides.
• Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as:
1. GAG
2. AGAR
3. AGAROSE
4. PECTIN

59. AGAR:
• Agar is prepared from sea weed.
• Agar contains galactose, glucose, and other sugars.
• Agar is used to culture bacterial colonies.
AGAROSE:
• Agarose is made up from agar and is used as matrix for electrophoresis.
PECTIN:
• Pectin is a soluble fiber found in most plants. It is most abundant in apples,
plums, and the peel and pulp of citrus fruits.
• The human body cannot digest pectin in its natural form.

60. GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAGs):
• Glyosaminoglycans are polysaccharides containing a repeating disaccharide.
• Glycosaminoglycans are also known as Mucopolysaccharides.
• Glycosaminoglycans includes:
1. Heparin
2. Hyaluronic acid
3. Dermatan sulfate
4. Chondroitin sulfate
5. Keratin sulfate

61. HYALURONIC ACID:
• Hyaluronic acid is composed of N-Acetyl-glucosamine and D-Glucaronic acid.
• Hyaluronic acid was first isolated from vitreous humor of eye. Later it was
found to be present in synovial fluid, skin, and umbilical cord.
• Hyaluronic acid in joints acts as a lubricant and shock absorber.
• Hyaluronic acid also helps in wound healing. Hyaluronic acid appears in
collagen and improves the appearance of scar.

62. • Hyaluronic acid is also used in cosmetic products.
• Hyaluronic acid reverse free radicals. Free radicals causes aging and can cause
damage to other organs. Thus hyaluronic acid also prevents aging.
• Hyaluronic acid also prevents dryness of skin and helps in skin hydration.
• Hyaluronic acid has ability to retain moisture. It prevents dryness of the eye.

64. HEPARIN:
• Heparin is composed of D-Glucosamine, L-Iduronic acid, and D-Glucaronic acid.
• Heparin is also called 𝜶-Heparin. It is an anticoagulant present in liver and it is
mainly produced by mast cells of liver.
• Heparin is also found in lungs, thymus, spleen, walls of large arteries, skin and
in small quantities in blood.
• Heparin stimulates the release of lipoprotein lipase enzyme that hydrolyses the
absorbed fats.

66. CHONDROITIN SULFATE:
• Chondroitin sulfate is the most abundant glycosaminoglycan (GAG)
• Chondroitin sulfate is composed of N-Acetyl Galactosamine Sulfate, and
Glucaronic acid.
• Chondroitin sulfate is normally found in cartilages around joints in the body.
• Chondroitin sulfate is also found in tendons, ligaments, skin, bones, and aorta.
• It is also responsible for maintenance of structure.

68. DERMATAN SULFATE:
• Dermatan sulfate is composed of N-Acetyl Galactosamine and L-Iduronic acid.
• Dermatan sulfate is present in skin, blood vessels, heart valves, and cornea.
• It’s presence in the sclera maintains overall shape of the eye.
• Dermatan sulfate is a major GAG synthesized by arterial smooth muscle cells.
• Dermatan sulfate may have roles in coagulation, wound repairing and infection.

70. KERATIN SULFATE:
• Keratin sulfate is composed of N-Acetyl Glucosamine and Galactose.
• Keratin is found in nails, cartilages and bones. It also helps in hair growth.

71. PROPERTIESOFPOLYSACCHARIDES:
• Polysaccharides are long chain of carbohydrate molecules, composed of several
smaller monosaccharides (more than 20).
• Polysaccharides are the most abundant type of carbohydrates found in nature.
• Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste.
• Many polysaccharides are insoluble in water. They are hydrophobic in nature.
• Polysaccharides are high molecular weight carbohydrates.

72. BIOMEDICALIMPORTANCEOFPOLYSACCHARIDES
• Polysaccharides serves as mechanical structure in plants and animals.
• Polysaccharides act as metabolic reserve in plants and animals- starch and
glycogen.
• Wood, cotton, and paper are made of cellulose which are useful in our day to day
life.
• Glycolipids and glycoproteins can be used to send signals between and within
cells.
• Bakery products require starch for their elasticity. Starch are also used in
detergents.

73. • Polysaccharides helps in cell migration in embryonic tissues.
• Heparin acts as an anticoagulant. Heparin helps in the release of lipoprotein
lipase, also called ‘Clearing factor’.
• Chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid present in cartilages have a great role
in compressibility of cartilage in weight bearing.
• Polysaccharides maintain the shape of sclera. It also helps in maintaining the
transparency of cornea.

74. THANK YOU