WHAT IS CARBOHYDRATE? CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE? WHAT IS MONOSACCHARIDE? CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE. PHYSICAL PROPERTY. CHEMICAL PROPERTY. ATRUCTURAL FORMULA. METABOLISM . IMPORTANCE OF MONOSACCHARIDE. IMPORTANT FACT RELATED TO MONOSACCHARIDE. DISORDER OF MONOSACCHARIDE CONCLUSION. REFRANCES
WHAT IS CARBOHYDRATE? CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE? WHAT IS MONOSACCHARIDE? CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE. PHYSICAL PROPERTY. CHEMICAL PROPERTY. ATRUCTURAL FORMULA. METABOLISM . IMPORTANCE OF MONOSACCHARIDE. IMPORTANT FACT RELATED TO MONOSACCHARIDE. DISORDER OF MONOSACCHARIDE CONCLUSION. REFRANCES
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
History
Introduction
Functions
Classification – Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
Digestion of carbohydrates
Absorption of carbohydrates
Dietary guidelines
Carbohydrates and oral health
Nutritional health programs in India
Public health significance
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
History
Introduction
Functions
Classification – Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
Digestion of carbohydrates
Absorption of carbohydrates
Dietary guidelines
Carbohydrates and oral health
Nutritional health programs in India
Public health significance
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
About carbohydrates, its types, physical and chemical properties, isomers and isomeric properties, important carbohydrates, medical use of some carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides and its qualitative tests - Part 1Mohamed Mukthar Ali
Discusses about monosaccharides definition, classification, structure and reactions of glucose, galactose, and fructose. Qualitative tests for carbohydrates with reaction scheme. Terminologies in carbohydrates such as epimeris, anomers and mutarotation.
The great Trial is an excerpt from the book 'Life and death of Mahatma Gandhi', by Robert Payne. Feel free to download and modify with more details and facts if you wish. Re-upload your version so that others can benefit. Cheers!
The luncheon is a story by William Somerset Maugham . Feel free to download and alter content to make it better. Please share your modified version so that others may benefit. Cheers!
'How far is the river' is another beautiful short story by Indian author Ruskin Bond. I made the slides based solely on my perception of the story. Feel free to download and alter if necessary. Do please upload your modified version, so that others can benefit too. Cheers!
'fly in the buttermilk' is a short story written by James Baldwin. In this excerpt, he discusses the challenges faced by a an African-american boy in an American school.
I could not find any Power-point presentation on this short story by O. Henry. I made this one myself. Hope it helps. Feel free to give your own inputs and re-upload it for better details. Cheers from Amity, Noida! :)
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
3. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are
• a major source of energy
from our diet.
• composed of the elements
C, H and O.
• also called saccharides,
which means “sugars.”
4. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
• are produced by
photosynthesis in plants.
• such as glucose are
synthesized in plants from
CO2, H2O, and energy from
the sun.
• are oxidized in living cells to
produce CO2, H2O, and
energy.
5. • Carbohydrates are sugars and provide energy
when consumed.
• Our bodies break down carbohydrates to extract
energy. Carbon dioxide and water are released
in the process.
• Glucose is the primary carbohydrate our bodies
use to produce energy.
• Carbohydrates are classified as biomolecules.
6. • Simple carbohydrates are referred to as
simple sugars and are often sweet to the taste.
• Consumption of more sugar than is needed for
energy results in conversion of these sugars to
fat.
• Complex carbohydrates include starches and
the plant and wood fibers known as cellulose.
7. Introduction to Carbohydrates, Continued
• Carbohydrates are found on the surface of cells
where they act as “road signs” allowing
molecules to distinguish one cell from another.
• ABO blood markers found on red blood cells
are made up of carbohydrates. They allow us to
distinguish our body’s blood type from a foreign
blood type.
• Carbohydrates in our body prevent blood clots.
They are also found in our genetic material.
8. • Carbohydrates also can combine with lipids to
form glycolipids
OR
• With proteins to form glycoproteins.
9. Examples of isomers:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
4. Mannose
Same chemical formula C6 H12 O6
15. The two members of the pair are designated as
D and L forms.
In D form the OH group on the asymmetric
carbon is on the right.
In L form the OH group is on the left side.
D-glucose and L-glucose are enantiomers:
16.
17.
18.
19. Classes of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides are the simplest
carbohydrates. They cannot be broken down to
smaller carbohydrates.
• Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide
units joined together; they can be split into two
monosaccharides. Sucrose, table sugar, can be
broken down into glucose and fructose.
• Oligosaccharides contain anywhere from three
to nine monosaccharide units. ABO blood
groups are oligosaccharides.
20. 20
Classes of Carbohydrates, Continued
Polysaccharides are large molecules containing
10 or more monosaccharide units. Carbohydrate
units are connected in one continuous chain or
the chain can be branched.
22. Monosaccharides, Continued
• Diabetics have difficulty getting glucose in their
cells, which is why they must monitor their blood
glucose levels regularly.
• Glucose is one of the monosaccharides of
sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar)
as well as the polysaccharides glycogen, starch,
and cellulose.
23. Monosaccharides, Continued
• Galactose is found combined with glucose in the
disaccharide lactose, which is present in milk
and other dairy products.
• A single chiral center (carbon 4) in galactose is
arranged opposite that of glucose, which makes
it a diastereomer of glucose.
• Diastereomers that differ by one chiral center
are called epimers.
24. cyclization
• Less then 1%of CHO exist in an open chain
form.
• Predominantly found in ring form.
• involving reaction of C-5 OH group with the C-1
aldehyde group or C-2 of keto group.
25. • Six membered ring structures are called
Pyranoses .
• five membered ring structures are called
Furanoses .
26.
27.
28.
29. Monosaccharides, Continued
• Mannose, a monosaccharide, is found in some
fruits and vegetables.
• Cranberries contain high amounts of mannose,
which has been shown to be effective in urinary
tract infections.
• Mannose is an epimer of glucose.
30. Monosaccharides, Continued
• Fructose, a ketose, is commonly referred to as
fruit sugar or levulose.
• Fructose is combined with glucose to give
sucrose, or table sugar.
• Fructose is the sweetest monosaccharide and
is found in fruits, vegetables, and honey.
• Fructose is not an epimer of glucose, but it can
be broken down for energy in the body.
31. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions, Continued
Monosaccharides and Redox
• An aldehyde functional group can undergo
oxidation by gaining oxygen or it can undergo
reduction by gaining hydrogen.
• During oxidation, aldehydes form carboxylic
acids, and during reduction, they form alcohols.
• In monosaccharides, oxidation produces a sugar
acid, and reduction produces a sugar alcohol.
32. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions, Continued
• Benedict’s test is a useful test to determine the
presence of an oxidation reaction that occurs
with sugars.
• Aldose sugars are oxidized by Cu2+ ion, while
the Cu2+ ion is reduced to Cu+ ion.
33. 33
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions, Continued
The product of this reaction, copper(I) oxide
(Cu2O), is not soluble and forms a brick red
precipitate in solution.
34. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions, Continued
• Aldoses are easily oxidized. They serve as
reducing agents and are referred to as reducing
sugars.
• Fructose and other ketoses are also reducing
sugars, even though they do not contain an
aldehyde group.
• The oxidizing agents can cause a
rearrangement of the ketose to an aldose.
35. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions, Continued
• Benedict’s test can be used in urine dipsticks to
determine the level of glucose in urine. Excess
glucose in urine suggests high levels of glucose
in blood, which is an indicator of diabetes.
• Aldoses or ketoses can be reduced by hydrogen
under the correct conditions, producing sugar
alcohols.
• Sugar alcohols are produced commercially as
artificial sweeteners and found in sugar-free
foods.
36. 36
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions, Continued
• When glucose levels are high in the blood
stream, sorbitol can be produced by an enzyme
called aldose reductase.
• High levels of sorbitol can contribute to
cataracts, which is a clouding of the lens in the
eye.
• Cataracts are commonly seen in diabetics.
37. 37
Disaccharides
Condensation and Hydrolysis—Forming and
Breaking Glycosidic Bonds
• The –OH group that is most reactive in a
monosaccharide is the one on the anomeric carbon.
• When this hydroxyl group reacts with another hydroxyl
group on another monosaccharide a glycosidic bond
is formed.
38. Disaccharides, Continued
Formation of glycosides is an example of
another type of organic reaction. During this
reaction, a molecule of water is eliminated as
two molecules join.
39. Disaccharides, Continued
• Condensation reaction is a type of reaction
that occurs when two molecules are joined and
a water molecule is produced. This type of
reaction is referred to as a dehydration
reaction.
• Hydrolysis reaction is the reverse of a
condensation reaction. A larger molecule forms
two smaller molecules and water is consumed
as a reactant.
40. Disaccharides, Continued
Condensation reactions occur between different
types of functional groups that contain an –H in
a polar bond, like O–H or N–H, and an –OH
group that can be removed to form water.
41. Disaccharides, Continued
• In the case of maltose, the glycosidic bond is
specified as α(1→4) and is simply stated as
alpha-one-four.
• If the –OH group had been in the beta
configuration when the glycosidic bond was
formed, the bond would be in the β(1→4)
configuration. The molecule formed would be
named cellobiose and would have a different
two-dimensional and three-dimensional shape
than maltose.
47. Disaccharides, Continued
Sucrose
• Sucrose is known as table sugar.
• It is the most abundant disaccharide found in
nature.
• Sucrose is found in sugar cane and sugar
beets.
• The glycosidic bond is (1→2).
• Both anomeric carbons of the
monosaccharides in sucrose are bonded,
therefore, sucrose is not a reducing sugar. It
will not react with Benedict’s reagent.
49. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large molecules of
monosaccharides that are connected to each
other through their anomeric carbons. There are
two types of polysaccharides:
1. Storage polysaccharides contain only -glucose
units. Three important ones are starch, glycogen,
and amylopectin.
2. Structural polysaccharides contain only -glucose
units. Two important ones are cellulose and chitin.
Chitin contains a modified -glucose unit.
50. Polysaccharides
• 2 types:
– HOMOpolysaccharides (all 1 type of monomer),
e.g., glycogen, starch, cellulose, chitin
– HETEROpolysaccharides (different types of
monomers), e.g., peptidoglycans,
glycosaminoglycans
54. Polysaccharides, Continued
Glycogen
• Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide found in
animals.
• Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.
• Its structure is identical to amylopectin, except
that α(1→6) branching occurs about every
12 glucose units.
• When glucose is needed, glycogen is
hydrolyzed in the liver to glucose.
55. Glycogen
Glycogen
• is the polysaccharide that
stores α-D-glucose in
muscle.
• is similar to amylopectin,
but is more highly
branched.
56. Polysaccharides, Continued
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose
• Cellulose contains glucose units bonded
(1→4).
• This glycosidic bond configuration changes the
three-dimensional shape of cellulose compared
with that of amylose.
• The chain of glucose units is straight. This
allows chains to align next to each other to form
a strong rigid structure.
59. Carbohydrates and Blood, Continued
Heparin
• Heparin is a medically important polysaccharide
because it prevents clotting in the bloodstream.
• It is a highly ionic polysaccharide of repeating
disaccharide units of an oxidized
monosaccharide and D-glucosamine. Heparin
also contains sulfate groups that are negatively
charged.
• It belongs to a group of polysaccharides called
glycosaminoglycans.
60. • Functions:
– glucose storage (glycogen in animals & bacteria,
starch in plants)
– structure (cellulose, chitin, peptidoglycans,
glycosaminoglycans
– information (cell surface oligo- and polysaccharides,
on proteins/glycoproteins and on lipids/glycolipids)
• osmotic regulation
61. • Cellulose and chitin
– Function: STRUCTURAL, rigidity important
– Cellulose:
• homopolymer, b(1-> 4) linked glucose residues
• cell walls of plants
62. – Chitin:
• homopolymer, b(1-> 4) linked N-
acetylglucosamine residues
• hard exoskeletons (shells) of arthropods
(e.g., insects, lobsters and crabs)