The document discusses the genetic code and how it was decoded through a series of experiments. It explains that the genetic code is made up of triplets of nucleotides called codons that each code for a specific amino acid. Through using random polymers of nucleotides and determining the resulting amino acid sequences, researchers discovered that each codon is three nucleotides long. Further experiments using ribosome binding assays finally determined the sequence of each codon and fully decoded the genetic code. The genetic code is universal across all life, has start and stop codons, and is degenerate with some amino acids corresponding to multiple codons.
The details about Translational control. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
It can be helpful for the students of Biotechnology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Microbiology and othe Biology related courses.
If you've got any queries, you can directly mail me to pratimasingdan@gmail.com.
I hope this will help you a lot.
Post-transcriptional modification or co-transcriptional modification is a set of biological processes common to most eukaryotic cells by which an RNA primary transcript is chemically altered following transcription from a gene to produce a mature, functional RNA molecule
The details about Translational control. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
It can be helpful for the students of Biotechnology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Microbiology and othe Biology related courses.
If you've got any queries, you can directly mail me to pratimasingdan@gmail.com.
I hope this will help you a lot.
Post-transcriptional modification or co-transcriptional modification is a set of biological processes common to most eukaryotic cells by which an RNA primary transcript is chemically altered following transcription from a gene to produce a mature, functional RNA molecule
Mechanism of action of Chymotrypsin & Lysozyme.pptxVanshikaVarshney5
Chymotrypsin and Lysozyme are the most important enzymes. Mechanism of action of these enzymes and introduction of these enzyme are given in this presentation in simple, easy and understanding language. Hope you will find it useful :)
Signal transduction Calcium Signaling vibhakhanna1
A wide range of Ca2+ signaling pathways deliver the spatial and temporal Ca2+ signals necessary to control the specific functions of different cell types, via various effector proteins and protein kinases
Proteins are very important molecules in our cells . They are involved in virtually all cell functions. Each protein within the body has a specific function. Some proteins are involved in structural support, while others are involved in bodily movement, or in defense against germs. Proteins vary in structure as well as function. They are constructed from a set of 20 amino acids and have distinct three-dimensional shapes.
Introduction
What RNA Splicing???
Discovery
Types
Alternative Splicing
Mechanism
Regulatory element And protein
Splicing repression
Splicing activation
Significance
Diseases
Conclusion
Refrences
Large family of proteolytic enzymes
All have serine residue at their active site which plays a crucial part in the enzymatic activity.
All cleave peptide bonds, by a similar mechanism of action. They differ in their specificity and regulation.
Serine proteases include:
the pancreatic proteases: trypsin, chymotrypsin and elastase,
various tissue/intracellular proteases such as leukocyte elastase
enzymes of the blood clotting cascade
some enzymes of complement system
Many serine proteases are synthesized as inactive precursors (zymogens) which are activated by proteolysis
GENETIC CODE
HISTORY AND DISCOVERY
FEATURES OF GENETIC CODE
IMPORTANCE
DEGENERATE CODON
UNAMBIGUOUS NATURE OF CODON
CODON ON mRNA AND ANTICODON ON t RNA
Mechanism of action of Chymotrypsin & Lysozyme.pptxVanshikaVarshney5
Chymotrypsin and Lysozyme are the most important enzymes. Mechanism of action of these enzymes and introduction of these enzyme are given in this presentation in simple, easy and understanding language. Hope you will find it useful :)
Signal transduction Calcium Signaling vibhakhanna1
A wide range of Ca2+ signaling pathways deliver the spatial and temporal Ca2+ signals necessary to control the specific functions of different cell types, via various effector proteins and protein kinases
Proteins are very important molecules in our cells . They are involved in virtually all cell functions. Each protein within the body has a specific function. Some proteins are involved in structural support, while others are involved in bodily movement, or in defense against germs. Proteins vary in structure as well as function. They are constructed from a set of 20 amino acids and have distinct three-dimensional shapes.
Introduction
What RNA Splicing???
Discovery
Types
Alternative Splicing
Mechanism
Regulatory element And protein
Splicing repression
Splicing activation
Significance
Diseases
Conclusion
Refrences
Large family of proteolytic enzymes
All have serine residue at their active site which plays a crucial part in the enzymatic activity.
All cleave peptide bonds, by a similar mechanism of action. They differ in their specificity and regulation.
Serine proteases include:
the pancreatic proteases: trypsin, chymotrypsin and elastase,
various tissue/intracellular proteases such as leukocyte elastase
enzymes of the blood clotting cascade
some enzymes of complement system
Many serine proteases are synthesized as inactive precursors (zymogens) which are activated by proteolysis
GENETIC CODE
HISTORY AND DISCOVERY
FEATURES OF GENETIC CODE
IMPORTANCE
DEGENERATE CODON
UNAMBIGUOUS NATURE OF CODON
CODON ON mRNA AND ANTICODON ON t RNA
Genetic code is a dictionary that corresponds with sequence of nucleotides and sequence of amino acids.
Genetic code is a set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material(DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins by living cells.
Term given By ″ Goerge Gamow ʺ
The sequence of nucleotides in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins. Though the linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA contains the information for protein sequences, proteins are not made directly from DNA. Instead, a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule is synthesized from the DNA and directs the formation of the protein. RNA is composed of four nucleotides: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil."(U)."
Genetic code is the term we use for the way that the four bases of DNA--the A, C, G, and Ts--are strung together in a way that the cellular machinery, the ribosome, can read them and turn them into a protein. In the genetic code, each three nucleotides in a row count as a triplet and code for a single amino acid.
Dr. Karthikeyan Pethusamy MD DNB (Biochemistry) explains the genetic code for the undergraduate students. Don't miss the YouTube video attached. The video is made with the same power point file.
description of the deciphering of the genetic code and genetic code table and explanation of characteristics of the genetic code and different scientists involved in cracking of the genetic code
Genetic Code. A comprehensive overview..pdfmughalgumar440
The genetic code serves as nature's instruction manual, dictating how genetic information is translated into proteins essential for life. Comprised of codons which code for specific amino acid or signaling the start or end of protein synthesis. This code exhibits redundancy and universality across organisms, In essence, the genetic code is the foundation of biological diversity and functionality, shaping the characteristics and functions of all living beings.
The material of a talk that I prepared to give in the online camel conference of Oman. Unfortunately, I had a death in the family the day before the conference and the material was presented by my friend Dr. Mohammed Alabri from Oman. The material is in Arabic and focused for camel breeders.
The material of a two days workshop that I gave at Sultan Qaboos University in Oman about the importance of livestock biobanks and how to establish an organized one. The workshop was given in Arabic.
A presentation as a webinar for the Winn Feline Foundation that focuses on recent findings related to the signatures of selection in the domestic cat genome
This was my presentation at the Plant and Animal Genome Conference 2019 in San Diego. My talk was a presentation of the thesis project of my student Mona Abdi. The focus of the presentation and project was the genomic signatures of selection in the domestic cat breeds.
This is a my lecture about camels title "Journey around the camel". The lecture was in Arabic and is related to a book under preparation with the same title. This part of the journey around the camel introduces the major camel breeds in the Arabian Peninsula and their external phenotypes and groupings.
This lecture covers some nice stories about the origins of the words "genome" and the derived word "genomics". the lecture also introduces viral, bacterial, and eukaryotic genomes.
This lecture covers key findings to the development of genomics as a field. This first part covers briefly Mendel to knowing that DNA is the genetic material by Hershey and Chase
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
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3. AIMS
• Understand the genetic code and how it was
decoded.
• Understand the codons and what do they code
for.
• Understand the general characteristics of the
genetic code.
4. Gene expression
DNA
m-
RNA ProteinTranscription Translation
Replication
• Translating a protein coding gene is called gene
expression.
• The path from genes to proteins go through an
intermediate molecule called m-RNA.
What molecule gets translated into a protein?
5. The genetic code
How do we get from mRNA ➔ protein?
m-RNA
A
U
G
C
proteins
20 amino acids
How do we get from 4 ➔ 20?
6. A mind experiment
• Each nucleotide codes for one amino acid.
Does not work (4 ≠ 20)
• Each 2 nucleotide codes for one amino acid.
How many combinations of 2 nucleotides?
4x4 = 16 combinations
Does not work (16 ≠ 20)
• Each three nucleotides codes for one amino
acid.
How many combinations of 3 nucleotides?
4x4x4 = 64 combinations
Can work (64 > 20)
7. A mind experiment
A code of three nucleotides coding for a single
amino acid creates more than needed!
8. The genetic code
• The genetic code is made of triplets (3) nucleotides.
• Codon: three nucleotides in a m-RNA coding for a
single specific amino acid.
How this was found?
9. The genetic code
• Mutation experiments proved that only removal
or addition of nucleotides by multiple of three can
result in a functional protein.
10. First experiment: using
mononucleotide polymers as
the mRNA.
Poly(U) mRNA gives poly
phenylalanine amino acids.
Thus UUU codes for
phenylalanine.
Can we do the same for the
other three nucleotides?
What codons code for what amino acid?
11. Poly(A) mRNA gives poly lysine amino acids. Thus
AAA codes for lysine.
Poly(C) mRNA gives poly proline amino acids. Thus
CCC codes for proline.
Poly(G) could not be done for structural difficulties.
What codons code for what amino acid?
12. Second experiment: using random copolymer
mRNA of two different nucleotides.
Make a copolymer of (A and C).
What are the outcomes?
What codons code for what amino acid?
13. • AAA (we already know)
• CCC (we already know)
• CCA
• CAC
• AAC
• CAA
• ACC
• ACA
What do they
code for?
Asparagine
Glutamine
Histidine
Threonine
How Do we know?
What codons code for what amino acid?
14. Second experiment: using random copolymer
mRNA of two different nucleotides.
(1) Play with the ratio (add more A than C)
(2) Get more Asparagine than histidine
(3) Thus Asparagine must be coded by 2As and
histidine by 2Cs
This experiment tells us about the composition
of the codon rather than the sequence of the
codon!
What codons code for what amino acid?
15. Third experiment: using copolymer of know
sequence.
Using UC copolymer gives the following mRNA.
5’ UCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUC 3’
The resulting amino acid chain is
leucine-serine-leucine-serine-leucine-serine-
leucine-serine
What codons code for what amino acid?
16. Result: UCU and CUC code for leucine and serine
But can not tell which is which!
What codons code for what amino acid?
17. Fourth experiment: using the translation process to
determine the code.
The approached used was called “ribosome binding
assay”
The experiment determined the specific sequence of
the codons.
What codons code for what amino acid?
18. When decoding the mRNA codons, 1 amino acid go
the ribosome and bind (tRNA).
This approach determined the sequence of the
majority of the codons.
What codons code for what amino acid?
19. The genetic code
The genetic code is composed of 64 codons
61 amino acid
coding codons
Three codons code
for the stop of
translation
UAA
UAG
UGA
Start codon
(AUG)
methionine (Met)
60 codons code
for 19 other amino
acids
20. The genetic code
The codons are more than what we need to
translate the 20 amino acids
We will learn how and why later!
21. Characteristics of the genetic code
1. The genetic code is made of triplets of nucleotides
(3nts) called codons.
23. Characteristics of the genetic code
3. The code is not overlapping. Every three
nucleotides in a sequence code for one codon.
24. Characteristics of the genetic code
4. The genetic code is universal (almost).
All living organisms have the same code and the
system of the code.
25. Characteristics of the genetic code
5. The code has specific signals for start of
translation and stop of translation.
The start codon (AUG) codes for a methionine amino
acid.
Three stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) code for a stop
WITHOUT and amino acid.
The stop codons are also called nonsense codons,
or chain termination codons.
26. Characteristics of the genetic code
6. The genetic code is “degenerate”.
Degenerate means redundant.
Remember 61 codons code for 20 amino acids
More than one codon for the same one amino acid
27. Characteristics of the genetic code
Remember:
Each codon codes for one amino acid
BUT
An amino acid can be coded by more than one
codon
28. Characteristics of the genetic code
7. The Wobble effect of the third base in the codon
The third nucleotides in some codons are not
essential for determining the identity of the amino
acid.
30. Characteristics of the genetic code
This due to the base pairing between the codon in
the mRNA and the anti-codon in the tRNA during
the translation process.
32. Stuff to know
Polar amino acids
codon
triplets
Mononucleotide polymer
Random copolymer
copolymer
Ribosome binding assay
Start codon
Stop codon
AUG
UUA
UAG
UGA
Nonsense codons
Chain termination codons
33. Expectations
• You know how the mRNA carries the genetic
code and how the sequence is mean to be read.
• You understand the experiments that lead to the
discovery of the genetic code.
• You know the characteristics of the genetic code.
